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Frovi the PnintinQ by Woodville 

Alfred, Chosen King by His Warriors 



THE STORY OF THE 
OLD WORLD 

A EUROPEAN BACKGROUND TO THE 
STORY OF OUR COUNTRY 



BY 

HENRY W. ELSON, Ph.D., Litt.D. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL. SCIENCE, OHIO UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR OF "history OF THE UNITED STATES," "siDE LIGHTS 

ON AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC. 

AND 

CORNELIA E. MacMULLAN, Ph.D. 

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, MONTCLAIR 
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 




I&44 



THOMPSON BROWN COMPANY 
(JOHNSON, BLAGDEN & McTURNAN) 

BOSTON NEW YORK 






COPYRIGHT, 1911 
JOHNSON, BLAGDEN & MCTURNAN, INC. 



£GI.A31264J^ 



PREFACE 

All of Old- World history is the New World's 
heritage; no historian dare assert in regard to the 
most remote and seemingly insignificant occur- 
rence of ancient record that it had no influence 
upon the course of later human events. But 
there are certain events connected with earlier 
human progress that have had a direct and easily 
traceable influence upon our New- World destinies; 
a knowledge of these is essential to a full under- 
standing and enjoyment of the story of our 
country. 

A committee of eight eminent teachers^ report- 
ing upon the study of American history in our 
schools, has declared that too much emphasis is 
placed upon the Atlantic Ocean as a barrier be- 
tween the history of the New World and that 
of the Old. This book is written to meet that 
criticism. It is not a condensed ^^ general his- 
tory.'' It is, in reality, the story of our country 
carried beyond and behind that wall habitually 
erected by earlier school historians upon the 
borders of the Atlantic. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I p^oj, 

Americans 1 

Immigrants (1). the coming of the Germans (5). — When 
America was unknown (11). — Useful inventions (13). 

CHAPTER II 

The Greeks 17 

The Siege of Troy (21). — The Battle of Marathon (27). — 
Leonidas and the Three Hundred (31). — Salamis (34). — The 
city wall (35). — Pericles and Athens (38). — The Greek boy 
(42). — The Olympic games (46). 

CHAPTER III 
Rulers of Greece 49 

The government of Athens (49). — Solon (51). — The Story 
of Socrates (54). — The boyhood of Alexander the Great (58). 

— The Conquests of Alexander (61). 

CHAPTER IV 
Rome and the Romans 67 

The city of the Seven Hills (67). — Horatius at the Bridge 
(69). — The Sacred Mount (72). — Cincinnatus (74). — The 
first Punic War and Regulus (76). — The second Punic War 
and Hannibal (78). — Cornelia's jewels (82). 

CHAPTER V 

C/ESAR AND THE WeST 87 

Early life of Caesar (87). — Two great Romans (89). — 
Caesar and the Gauls (91). — The Story of Vercingetorix (95). 

— Crossing the Rubicon (98) . — Last Years and Death of 
Caesar (101). — The Empire and the City (103).— The 
Coming of Christianity (107). — What Rome gave to the 
World (112). 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VI 

PAGE 

Heirs to the Romans 115 

The Story of Clovis (116).— The Story of King Arthur 
(118). — The Viking (121). — Alfred becomes King (123). — 
The Greatest of the EngHsh Kings (126). — Beginnings of 
American Liberty (130). — The English Parliament (135). — 
The Welsh and the Scots (138). — The Manor of the Middle 
Ages (139).— The Walled Town (142). — Training for 
Knighthood (144). —The Canterbury Cathedral (146). 

CHAPTER Vn 

The Crusades 148 

The First Crusade (149). — King Richard and the Third 
Crusade (154). —The Results of the Crusades (159). 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Western World 165 

The Northmen (165). — Marco Polo (168). — The Voy- 
age of Diaz (170). — Christopher Columbus (172). — The 
Name America (177). — John Cabot (178). — Vasco da 
Gama (180). — Balboa and the South Sea (182). — Magel- 
lan's Voyage (184). — Jacques Cartier (187). — Cortez and 
Mexico (191). — The Search for Gold (195). 

CHAPTER IX 

European Claims to America 200 

Sir Francis Drake (202). — The Gentle Lord de Bayard 
(206). — The Fate of Fort Carolina (208). — Spain and the 
Dutch (211). — William of Orange (213). — The Story of 
Sir Philip Sidney (216). — The Invincible Armada (217). — 
The Story of Gilbert and Raleigh (220). 

Suggestive Topics for Composition and Discussion . . 225 



THE STORY OF THE OLD 
WOELD 




CHAPTER I 

Americans 

N almost every city or community 
in the United States there are 
famihes who came from foreign 
lands. Some of them have been 
in this country a long time and 
perhaps the children were born 
here; others came more recently 
and children as well as parents were born abroad. 

In some parts of the country a very large propor- 
tion of the people are newcomers. In Minnesota 
and other states lying near it a great many of the 
people are Scan'di-naVi-ans — Swedes, Nor-we'gi-ans, 
or Danes — or, rather, they were until recently. 
Now they are Americans. They came to America 
to make it their permanent home. They purchased 
or rented small farms and went to work to make a 
living. They are industrious, good people. Some of 
them have risen to high positions. Not long ago an 
American-born Swede was governor of Minnesota and 
others have served in the United States Senate. 

If now we go back a hundred years or more we shall 
find that the ancestors of all of us came from foreign 
lands — from the same countries that we see on the 

1 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




Europe, the Mother of America 



THE AMERICANS 




An Emigrant Ship of 1630 



map of Europe. We are all Eu^ro-pe'ans a few genera- 
tions back. We are a transplanted people. And the 
Europeans are still coming, 
in great numbers. 

Nearly three hundred years 
ago, when Massachusetts was 
being settled, about twenty 
thousand people came to that 
colony in the space of ten 
years — from 1630 to 1640 — 
an average of two thousand 
a year. This was called the 
'' Great Migration.'' What 
would our ancestors have 

thought could they have foreseen the present human 
river flowing to our shores from Europe -^ more than 
a milUon a year? 

If we could spend a day at Ellis Island, near New 
York City, where most of the immigrants land, we 
should probably see thousands of these people debark 
from the incoming ships. In colonial days they 
came in small sailing vessels and two or three months 
were spent on the sea. Now they come in great, 

swift steamships, often called 
''ocean greyhounds,'' and 
seldom are they more than a 
week on the ocean. 

The immigrants on land- 
ing are all examined by 
inspectors. Each must pay a small fee for the privi- 
lege of remaining. If one is a criminal, or diseased, 




An Ocean Greyhound 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




In a New Land 

By permission of Century Co. 



or likely to become a pauper, he is sent back. After 
the immigrants have passed the test of our immigration 

laws, they begin the task of 
earning a living. Some go to 
the far West, others to the 
South, but many remain in the 
large cities of the East. Those 
who go far into the interior 
of the continent have another 
long and toilsome journey 
ahead of them before they 
reach their future homes. 
Most railroads have special 
immigrant cars, with hard, 
cushionless seats, on which 
a lower fare is charged, and 
into these cars the people are 
crowded for their journey to 
other parts of the country. 

Why do these people come 
here? Look at them as they 
arrive and most of them seem 
very poor. Their clothing is 
coarse and their goods are tied 
up in rough bundles. Many 
of them cannot speak the Eng- 
lish language. It is true there 
may be a criminal or anarchist 
among them; but the great 
majority of them are good people, honest and indus- 
trious, and they come to America in the hope of doing 




THE COMING OF THE GERMANS 5 

better for themselves and for their children than they 
could do in the Old World. They have done a brave 
deed in leaving the home of their childhood and cross- 
ing the great ocean to better their condition. A lazy, 
shiftless person would not do such a thing. In a few 
years the children learn our language, and often the 
parents too. In time they will learn our ways and 
become good Americans. The one thing above all else 
that makes good Americans is our public schools. 

We are fond of believing that our ancestors who 
braved the Atlantic billows to find a home in the New 
World were heroes, and perhaps they were; but many 
of the late comers have shown the same kind of courage. 



THE COMING OF THE GERMANS 

Let us now go back to colonial times and take a 
hurried view of one of the settlements, as an example 
of all. Which shall we choose? 

From ''The Story of Our Country" you have read 
of the coming of the 



Pilgrim Fathers in 
the Mayflower. You 
have also read of the 
first settlement at 
Jamestown in Vir- 
ginia, of the early 
settlement of New 
York by the Dutch, of the coming of William Penn to 
Pennsylvania and of General Oglethorpe to Georgia. 
These are treated in nearly all our histories. But how 
many know about the first settlement of the Germans? 




Emigrants on Shipboard 



6 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

Seldom is there much said about them in our school 
histories; perhaps because they were not among the 
first settlers and did not found a separate colony. 

They are a great people and the German Empire 
is one of the most powerful nations of to-day. The 
Germans have played a great part in building up 
America to what it is now. It was a German, Wald- 
see Miiller, who first suggested that the vast lands 
of the Western World be called America. The only 
man who founded two of the original thirteen colonies 
was a German — Peter Minuit, the founder of New 
York and Delaware. In both cases he led a people 
not of his own blood — the Dutch to New York and 
the Swedes to Delaware. It was a German who sum- 
moned the first Colonial Congress, in New York, in 
1691 — Jacob Leisler. There was one German, named 
Tyrker, with Leif Ericson on his first voyage to the 
American shores, 1000 a.d.; there were a few Germans 
among the first settlers at Jamestown and a few in the 
still earlier settlement at Port Royal, South Carolina. 
Moreover, there are twenty million of the people of the 
United States to-day who are of German descent, 
through one or both parents. Only the English surpass 
them in this respect, and they but little. All others 
fall far below them. For these reasons and because 
the early coming of the Germans is not well known, 
we have chosen to give a brief narrative of their first 
settlement. 

WILLIAM PENN 

The first settlement of Germans was in Pennsylvania. 
You have read about William Penn and the Quakers 



WILLIAM PENN 7 

who founded Philadelphia. Before coming to America 
Penn went to Germany, where he made many friends. 
A few years later, when he received a charter from the 
king of England, a number of Germans became inter- 
ested and decided to go to the new land of Penn. The 
first shipload of Germans came from Crefeld, a city on 
the Rhine River. They came in the good ship Con- 
cord, which was to them what the Mayflower was to 
the Pilgrim Fathers. It was a strong, roomy vessel, 
and its commander was Captain Jeffreys. 

The company of German emigrants was not a large 
one ; there were thirteen families and a devoutly relig- 
ious people they were. It was in midsummer, 1683, 
when they launched out upon the deep sea for the long 




The Site of Philadelphia and the " Treaty Tree" 

journey to their new home in the Western World. We 
can imagine how the tears must have filled their eyes 
when they saw fading from view the shores of the land 
they were leaving behind, the land of their childhood's 
home, which they never expected to see again. 

After a voyage of two and a half months the Concord 
reached the mouth of the Delaware. It was in the 
early autumn, when the forests are dressed in rainbow 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



colors and all nature is so charming and so inviting. 
How refreshing the sight of land must have been to 
these weary travelers after the long weeks upon their 
floating home, where nothing met the eye but the 
ceaseless rolling billows around them. 

The Concord sailed up the Delaware and reached 

Philadelphia on October 6, 1683. One year before 

this William Penn had arrived from England and had 

■^» 







William Perm's House 

already laid out the new city on the western bank of 
the Delaware. He was expecting the Germans, some 
of whom were Quakers, and he received them with a 
warm welcome. 

The real leader of this German colony did not come 
in the Concord; he had arrived in another ship a few 
weeks earlier. His name was Daniel Pas-to'ri-us. He 
was a very learned man and spoke several languages. 
Pastorius came to be an intimate friend of William 
Penn and the two dined together twice a week. In 



GERMANTOWN 9 

later years Pastorius wrote that Philadelphia, then a 
village of a few houses, was surrounded by dense forests 
and that sometimes he lost his way in the underbrush 
when going to Penn's house. 

The first thing to be decided when the German 
colonists arrived was where to make their home. 
Through their leader, Pastorius, and a company in 
Germany, they had purchased from William Penn a 
large tract of land, thousands of acres, for about ten 
cents an acre. But just where this land was to be set 
apart for them was not determined. 

At length it was decided that they settle about six 
miles north of Philadelphia, and thither they went. 
Faithfully they toiled in cutting away the timbers, 
clearing the land for planting, and building homes. 
Pastorius wrote that his house was thirty feet long and 
fifteen feet broad, and that for a window glass he used 
oil-soaked paper. He put a Latin motto over his door, 
of which the English would be, ^'A poor home, but 
good cheer. '^ When Penn first visited him at the new 
house he had a hearty laugh at the motto and 
encouraged his friend to continue building. 

GERMANTOWN 

The new settlement was called Germantown. It 
was a happy community. By the next spring streets 
had been laid out and patches cleared for planting. 
Cottages had sprung up here and there and the shouts 
of playing children rang out among the forest trees. 
Others soon came from Germany and settled at Ger- 
mantown, and it became one of the most prosperous 



10 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

settlements in America. Many of the people were 
weavers and they set up looms and opened a store in 
Philadelphia for the sale of their wares. The town 
founded by Germans has long been absorbed by the 
great city, but that part of Philadelphia is still called 
by the old name — Germantown. 

The people of Germantown were so busy with their 
farming and weaving that it was difficult to find men 
to hold office, and at length a fine was imposed on any- 
one who refused. How strange this seems to our gener- 
ation; we have more office seekers than offices. The 
people of Germantown were sober and industrious, and 
criminals were so few that the courts often adjourned 
because they had nothing to do. 

One thing more must be said about the Germans of 
Germantown — that by which they will be longest 
remembered. Negro slavery then existed in all the 
colonies, north and south. It was hateful to the Ger- 
mans and they were the first in America to raise their 
voice against it. On April 18, 1688, the settlers of 
Germantown met and drew up a protest against 
slavery. This precious document is still preserved, in 
the handwriting of Pastorius. It was drawn up to 
be sent to the meeting of the Quakers, which was 
soon to take place. The Quakers received the protest 
against this traffic in human beings and acknowledged 
it. But they did not act upon it, and seventeen years 
went by before the Quakers passed resolutions against 
slavery. The honor of being first in the field to 
raise their voice against slavery in America must 
ever be awarded to the Pennsylvania Germans. 



IllJliil 



WHEN AMERICA WAS UNKNOWN 11 

WHEN AMERICA WAS UNKNOWN 

It seems strange that but little more than four hun- 
dred years ago half the land area of the earth was wholly 
unknown to the people of the other half, and that only 
one hundred years ago a large part of the United States 
was an unbroken wilderness. The land was covered 
with vast forests, or 
rolling prairies, and was 
inhabited only by scat- 
tered tribes of a savage 
race who knew nothing 
of civilization. How 
long these people, whom ^^ J^^ 

we call Indians, had 

i. J T_ 1 ^ ,1 Indian Picture Writing 

lived here before the 

coming of the white man we do not know — perhaps 
thousands of years. The Indians had no books and 
no literature and had not recorded their own history. 
Where they came from and who they were we can only 
guess. All we know is that here we found them, that 
they could tell us nothing of their remote past, and 
that few of them could do more than hunt and fish. 

Fifteen hundred years before the discovery of Amer- 
ica by white men, the Christian era began. During 
these intervening fifteen centuries Europe slowly ad- 
vanced in civilization. The known world at the begin- 
ning of the Christian era was very small compared 
to the world we know. It consisted of a few countries 
around the Med'i-ter-ra'ne-an Sea and was under a 
single government — the government of Rome. 



12 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The people of Italy were then called Romans; now 
they are known as Italians. The inhabitants of France 
were called Gauls, and later Franks, while the people 
who lived in England were Britons. The names Eng- 
land and English came into use centuries later. 

In those early days the people had strange notions 
about the earth. We know that the earth is a vast 
globe swinging in space around the sun, making one of 
its sublime revolutions every year and turning on its 
axis once in twenty-four hours, making the sun, moon, 
and stars seem to rise and set. The people did not then 
know these things. They believed the earth to be flat 
and that the sun and moon revolved around it. They 
thought the earth was the center of the universe and 
that Europe was the top and center of the earth. 

There was no end to the fantastic behefs of those 
days. Some thought the earth sloped downward in 
all directions and if a vessel sailed too far down the 
slope it could never get back. If the earth is round, 
they said, certainly nobody could live on the other 
side. How could they walk with their heads down- 
ward? Some believed that far to the southward the 
ocean was so hot that the water boiled with fury and 
that nothing could Hve in it. Another belief was that 
a great bird hovered over the sea, so great that it could 
carry off a ship in its talons. 

These absurd notions were gradually dispelled as men 
came to study science and to know more about nature. 
And their study brought about a great many useful 
inventions, some of which we feel that we could not do 
without. Let us notice a few of these. 




USEFUL INVENTIONS 13 

USEFUL INVENTIONS 

We all know of the wonderful advantage of modern 
inventions. Take the telephone for example. If we 
wish to order something from the 
grocer, or speak to a friend in a dis- 
tant town, or call a doctor at night, 
we simply go to an instrument on 
the wall or on our table and talk into 
it. Our voice is carried through a 
wire by means of electricity. What a 
marvelously strange thing this would 
have seemed to our grandfathers; and so it was to us 
at first, but we are becoming accustomed to it. 

Take another example — the sewing machine. Sixty 
or seventy years ago all sewing had to be done by hand, 
and a great majority of women and many men in the 
factories spent their time with the needle and thimble 
in slavish toil. The sewing machine has changed all 
that; it has freed women as no other invention has 
done. It has enabled her to give more attention to 
study and culture and has thus perhaps played as 
great a part as any other invention in raising our 
standard of civilization. 

The past hundred years have produced more great 
inventions than any preceding century, but we must 
not think that our age has originated everything 
useful. If we go back to the time of Columbus and 
before, we shall find inventions that we could not well 
get along without. Among these are the mariner's 
compass, gunpowder, and printing. 



14 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




In the ancient world all printing was done by hand. 
The great books of ancient times — the Bible, Homer's 

poems, and the like — 
were all preserved by 
hand printing. For 
one to reproduce a 
copy of the Bible in 
this way required sev- 
eral years of tedious 
toil. 

Books as we have 
them did not exist in 
those early times. In 
As-syr'i-a they wrote 
on clay tablets and 
then baked the tab- 
lets to make the writ- 
ing hard and lasting. 
In Egypt they used papyrus, and from this we get 
our word '^ paper." The papyrus was a tall, rush-like 
plant, which was split and the pieces gummed together. 
In Asia Minor and other places they used parchment, 
made of the skins of goats and other animals. A fine 
kind of parchment, made of calfskin, was called vellum. 
On all these the work of printing was done by hand. 

The invention of printing from movable type dates 
from about the middle of the fifteenth century. The 
inventor was John Gu 'ten-berg of Mainz, a city on the 
Rhine river in Germany. It was about the year 1450 
that Gutenberg began printing. His type was carved 
out of wood. The art of printing soon spread to the 



The Manuscript 

Fragment from mural painting by Alexander 
in Library of Congress 



USEFUL INVENTIONS 



15 



other countries of Europe. From that time to the 
present the art has grown and improved and to-day it 
constitutes one of the most extensive of modern indus- 
tries. The great cyhnder printing presses are among 
the wonders of the large cities and vast numbers of 
books and papers are turned out by them. When all 
printing was done by hand, books were few and expen- 
sive, while newspapers and magazines did not exist. 
It was very difficult to acquire an education in those 
remote days. In our 
own times books and 
papers are so cheap 
and so plentiful that 
anyone who wishes 
may use them. 

The invention of 
printing naturally 
brings to mind an- 
other, which is very 
much older — the in- 
vention of the alpha- 
bet. 

The American Indi- 
ans used a sort of 
picture writing to ex- 
press their thoughts. 

The ancient Egyptians used characters that we call 
hi'er-o-glyphlcs,and the Assyrians a wedge-shaped char- 
acter which they made in soft clay and then baked. 
In all these the characters stood for words or objects 
and not for sounds, as do the letters of our alphabet. 




Hieroglyphics 

From a mural painting by Alexander 
in Library of Congress 



16 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




The Phoe-ni'ci-ans, a people who hved on the eastern 
shore of the Mediterranean, were the inventors of the 

alphabet; that is, char- 
acters to represent dif- 
ferent sounds. We do 
not know the exact time 
of the invention, but it 
was probably about one 
thousand years before 
Christ. From the Phoe- 
nicians the Greeks 
learned to write by 
means of letters and the 
Romans learned the same 
from the Greeks. The 
Romans changed the 
shape of many of the 
letters to about the form 
in which we now have them. 

By these few examples we see that many of the ad- 
vantages we enjoy have come to us from the far past 
and are not of our own making. In the following chap- 
ters we shall take a closer view of the two most wonder- 
ful countries of antiquity and note some of the things 
they contributed to our modern life in America. 

XOiHeltni. &l;aucer dm pth tu) 
il^m foacnonfolum catnyz^tKcjopufculaf 
©a? qnocpg laui>eBr.tu£Cit]^ce(teittag 

Specimen of Gutenberg's Type 



John Gutenberg 

From an old print 




CHAPTER II 

The Greeks 

N ancient times, long before America 
was discovered by Christopher Col- 
umbus, there lived in a little country 
called Greece a people highly civil- 
ized and noted for their love of nature 
and works of art. Many of their 
ideas and institutions have come 
down to us, and we Americans, as well as other civil- 
ized nations, owe them much. 

Where is Greece and who were these people? As 
we look on the map of Europe we find three penin- 
sulas extending into the Mediterranean Sea. The most 
eastern is the Balkan, and the southern part of this 
peninsula is Greece. 

Greece is a mountainous country with a broken coast- 
line. Many Httle islands dot the seas and bays that 
touch its shore. The most beautiful sea that washes 
its shores is the blue ^-ge'an. The islands of this sea 
are not only rich in minerals, but they afford an 
easy voyage for the navigator who crosses the waters 
to Asia Minor, where Greece first established her 
colonies. 

The situation of Greece and the formation of its 

17 



18 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



land surface gave it many advantages — a varied and 
beautiful landscape, access to the older countries of the 
East, and power as an independent country. Olives, 
grapes, and wheat grew in the valleys and on the 
hill slopes. Mines of copper and silver and quarries 
of marble were found among the rocks. Its ranges of 
mountains protected it against invading forces. These 
ranges afforded boundaries for cantons or independent 
states. Wherever the Greeks settled they showed the 
same independence that characterized their mother 
country. Greece was small, but nearly every one of its 
states had contact with the sea, and this influenced the 
Greeks to colonize and thus spread their civilization. 








'^''^^^Y'^ '' 



Greece and her Islands 



^ ^ s 



They beheved the earth to be flat and that Greece 
occupied the middle of it. They thought that the 



THE GREEKS 



19 




Apollo Belvidere 



earth was divided into halves by the Mediterranean 

Sea. 

The Greeks enjoyed living in the outdoor air. Their 

theaters were left open to the sky, and many of their 

legislative halls and temples had no 

roofs. Their fondness for nature was 

seen in their early religion. Their gods 

and goddesses dwelt on the mountains 

and revealed themselves in the various 

aspects of nature. Zeus (Roman name, 

Jupiter) hurled the thunderbolt and 

scourged with lightning; Hermes (Mer- 
cury) was the personification of the 

wind; and Eos (Aurora) was the goddess of the dawn. 
Since 0-lym^pus was the highest and least accessible 

of their moun- 
tains, the ancient 
Greeks thought it 
to be the abode 
of their great god 
Zeus, the king of 
heaven. Here 
dwelt also Hera 
(Juno) , his wife, the 
queen of heaven; 
A-the'ne (Miner- 
va), his favorite 
child, the goddess 
of wisdom; A-poF- 

lo, his son, the god of music and the god of the sun; 

Ar'te-mis (Diana), Apollo's sister, the goddess of the 




Diana hunting with her Maidens 

From the painting by Makart, in Metropolitan 
Museum, New York 



20 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



moon and the patron of the chase. These ancient 
Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses. Po- 
sei'don (Neptune) was king of the seas, and Hades 
(Pluto) lord of the lower world. The goddess of 
love and beauty was Aph'ro-di'te (Venus). Ares 
(Mars) was the god of war, and his brother He- 
phses'tus (Vulcan) god of fire. Hestia (Vesta) was 
patroness of hearth and home, and De-me'ter (Ceres) 
the goddess of the fruitful earth. 




i^^^:>&^.^^,,^^Md^^^< „ w ;; ^"^^ ^ ^X'^~4i 



Redrawn from the painting by Guido Reni 

Aurora 



The Greek myths and legends tell of these hero gods 
and goddesses. One of these legends is that of the siege 
of Troy. The story of the Trojan War was well known 
to the Greeks before a poet put the legend into a poem. 
They regarded that war as the great event of their 
early history. 

Of the poems that treated of the Trojan War, the 
"iri-ad" and the ^'Od^s-sey^' have been preserved. 
They are called the Ho-mer'ic poems because the 



THE SIEGE OF TROY 



Greeks accepted them as the works of Homer, a bhnd 
poet. They give us pictures of the hfe of the ancient 
Greeks when each state w^as ruled by a king whose 
authority was supposed to descend from Zeus. The 
legend tells us that the descendants of Zeus founded 
Troy, or H'i-um, in the northwestern part of Asia 
Minor, and the '^ Iliad" is the story of the siege of 
Troy. 

THE SIEGE OF TROY 

One of the states of ancient Greece was Sparta, and 
Men^e-la'us was its king. His 
wife was the fairest woman of 
her time — the beautiful Helen. 
She had many suitors before her 
marriage with Menelaus, but 
these wooers had agreed that 
they would uphold the rights of 
the successful suitor if it should 
ever become necessary. And it 
was not long before their help 
was needed. 

The goddess of discord caused 
the trouble. At a wedding feast 
among the gods she threw upon 
the banquet table a golden apple 
which bore the inscription, ^^To 
the fairest." Hera, Athene, and 
Aphrodite quarreled for its pos- 
session. ''Power has the best Helen of Troy 

right to it," said Hera. ''The "^^^"^Itd^LTi.hf '' 




22 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

wisdom of the gods surpasses power," replied Athene. 
Aphrodite smiled at what they said. ^^Who has greater 
claims than the goddess of beauty?" she asked. The 
quarrel grew bitter and he who was chosen as umpire 
was not to be envied. 

The decision was referred to Paris, the son of Priam, 
King of Troy. A handsome and attractive young man 
was this judge, and each goddess tried to bias him in 
her favor. ''Award the prize to me," said Hera, ''and 
I will give you great wealth and unhmited power." 
Then Athene, in glittering armor, promised him glory 
and renown in war if he would give the golden apple to 
her. But their bribes were nothing to Paris in compari- 
son with Aphrodite's promise, "I will give you a bride 
as fair as myself if you will prefer me." The handsome 
young judge no longer hesitated. 

" Ere yet her speech was finished, he consigned 
To her soft hand the fruit of burnished rind." 

But where was Paris to find this fair bride? The 
answer to that lay with the goddess of beauty. She 
advised him to go to Greece and visit the King of 
Sparta, and that is what he did. The prince from 
Troy was graciously received by Menelaus and his 
beautiful queen. But he was not there many days 
before the king was called away from home. "Now 
is your opportunity," said Aphrodite. Would Paris 
prove false to the king who had generously enter- 
tained him? "Helen is the fairest of women and she 
is the bride destined for me," he said. No sooner had 
Men'e-la'us departed than Paris persuaded Helen to 
leave the court of Sparta and sail with him to Troy. 



THE SIEGE OF TROY 23 

What happened when the king returned? Messen- 
gers were despatched in every direction to summon the 
chieftains of Greece and those suitors who had sworn 
to defend him. And it was not long before the Greeks 
were ready to embark for Troy to avenge the steahng 
of Helen. They accordingly set sail and soon hostilities 
began. 

For nine years the Greeks tried to enter Troy; but 
they could not take the city so long as the brave Hector 
defended it. And in all those years the Trojans could 
not drive the enemy from their shores. 

It was now the tenth year of the siege. A dreadful 
sickness had broken out among the Greeks, and many 
of their brave warriors had died. It seemed as if they 
would be forced to yield to the might of the Trojans. 
''If we had only A-chiries!" they exclaimed in their 
despair; 'Hhe gods have truly forsaken us." 

Who was Achilles and why was he not on the battle- 
field? He was the bravest of the Greek warriors, but 
Ag'a-mem'non, the brother of Menelaus, had offended 
him and he was now sulking in his tent. 

Messenger after messenger had gone to urge the 
Greek warrior to return to the field, but he would not 
yield. Now Pa-tro'clus went, whom Achilles loved as a 
brother. ''He certainly will not refuse him," said the 
Greeks. In this they were mistaken; even his friend 
could not persuade Achilles to return. However, he 
gave Patroclus his armor, and his friend took the field 
in the guise of Achilles. Hector was deceived, but he 
had no fear; he rushed upon Patroclus and slew him. 

When Achilles heard that his friend was killed he 



24 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

renounced his wrath and prepared to go forth to war. 
But he had no armor. Thereupon Hephaestus came to 
his aid with the most beautiful suit of mail that was 
ever made. 

Clothed in this new armor he rushed to the field and 
there encountered Hector. Indeed, the Trojan had 
reason to fear Achilles. When he was a small child 
his mother had plunged him into the sacred river Styx, 
and its waters had made his body invulnerable. But 
there was one place that the waters did not touch, and 
that was the heel and ankle by which she held him. 

Hector's body, however, was liable to attack. 
Apollo had cautioned the Trojan prince to keep 
aloof and his mother and father begged him not to 
encounter Achilles. ^^It was by my command," he 
replied, ^^that the Trojans went to this day's contest. 
How can I therefore seek refuge for myself?" Now 
Achilles approached. At the sight of the Greek, 
Hector's courage left him and he fled. Three times 
Achilles chased him around the walls of Troy. At 
last he aimed his spear at Hector's neck and the 
brave Trojan fell mortally wounded. "Spare my 
body, and let me receive funeral rites from the sons 
and daughters of Troy," were his last words. 

The '^ Iliad" closes with the death of Hector, but 
other poems tell us of the fate of Achilles and of those 
who were victorious in the end. Apollo, who disliked 
Achilles, gave to Paris a poisoned arrow to aim at 
the vulnerable heel. The arrow did its work and the 
bravest of warriors died in terrible agony. 

But the walls of Troy still stood, and the Greeks 



THE SIEGE OF TROY 



25 



almost despaired of subduing the city by force. ^^We 
must take it by strategem/' said the cunning 0-dys'seus 
(Roman name, Ulysses), and he invented a plan. A 
large wooden horse was constructed and filled with 
armed men. This the Greeks left at the gate of Troy, 
and they told the Trojans that it was an offering to 
Athene. Then they pretended to give up the siege 
and to sail away. 

As they saw the Greek ships move from their shores 
the Trojans ran out 
from the walls of 
their city. They 
gazed in wonder at 
the wooden horse. 
^'Let us take it into 
the city as a trophy,'^ 
exclaimed one. 
'^ What madness, citi- 
zens, is this!" cried 
a priest of Apollo, 
named La-oc'o-on. 
''Have you not 
learned enough of 
Grecian fraud to be 
on your guard against 
it?" He then sent a spear into the horse's side to see 
whether its body was hollow. Not long after that two 
huge serpents arose out of the sea and coiled their bodies 
around him and his two sons and strangled them to 
death. ''The gods are displeased," said the Trojans. 
They now regarded the wooden horse as a sacred object 




Group of the Laocoon in the Vatican 



26 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



and it was moved with solemn rites to the largest square 
of their city. 

The Trojans now retired for the night, and the armed 
men within the horse seized their opportunity. When 
they thought the enemy were asleep, they sprang from 
their hiding place and opened the gates of the city for 
the Greeks outside to rush in. They then set fire to 
Troy and nearly all the Trojans perished. 

This ended the siege. The wrongs of Menelaus were 
avenged and Helen was returned to Sparta, 




Reading from Homer 

Redrawn from a painting by Alma Tadema 

These two great poems — the ''Iliad" and the 
''Odyssey" — are a part of the world's literature. But 
how have they come down to us? Printing was not 
invented until the fifteenth century after the birth of 
Christ, and these poems were composed centuries 
before his birth. 

In the early days of Greece there were singers or 
minstrels who wandered from place to place reciting 



THE BATTLE OF MARATHON 



27 



stories telling of the mighty acts of the gods or the 
deeds of some great hero. Then there came a poet who 
put these myths and 
legends into poems, 
and the poet is known 
by the name of Homer, 
which means ^'the 
author." He, too, 
would go from place 
to place reciting his 
poems, and then other 
men would learn them 
and do the same. 
Thus the stories of the 
^^Iliad" and the 
' ' Odyssey ' ' came to 
be known, and later 
were handed down in 
manuscript. They have been translated into English 
and are not only read in our schools, but many refer- 
ences and allusions in our literature are from these 
Greek myths and legends. 




Homer 

From the sculpture by Bates 



THE BATTLE OF MARATHON 

It was one thousand years before Christ when Homer 
sang of the courageous deeds of the heroes of myth and 
legend. More than four hundred years passed, and 
we hear of other heroes, not of legend and myth, but 
of real history. Let us see who they were and why 
we should remember them. 

In the sixth century before Christ, Lyd'i-a in Asia 



28 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

Minor was one of the great world powers. Her soil 
was rich in metals and her river beds contained gold. 
Indeed, the wealth of her king, Crce'sus, so impressed 
the people of the time that even to this day his name 
stands for riches. 

Among his subjects were the prosperous Greek 
cities in Asia Minor. Croesus had favored them, and 
now they were ready to help him when Persia, another 
world power, attacked his kingdom. Persia was suc- 
cessful and subdued one Greek city after another until 
finally they all arose in revolt. 

They asked the cities in Greece, their mother country, 
to help them, but these cities had heard of the might 
of Da-ri'us, 'Hhe Great King of Persia," and they had 
reasons to fear him. Only one came to their aid, and 
this city was Athens. ''It is our duty to help our kins- 
men," she said, and she sent them twenty ships. Away 
sailed the ships to Asia Minor, but it was not long 
before the cities were again subdued by the Persian 
despot. Successful in this, Darius aimed an arrow 
toward Athens, saying, ''That city shall be punished 
for sending troops to Asia." Lest he should forget to 
do it, he ordered one of his bodyguard to say three 
times a day, "Master, remember the A-the'ni-ans." 
And indeed he did remember them. 

The Great King now sent heralds to Greece to demand 
"earth and water"; that is, the country should recog- 
nize him as ruler over its land and water. He thought 
that the little city of Athens would bow in terror before 
him, but let us see whether it did. Some of the cities 
sent back "earth and water." But brave little Athens 



THE BATTLE OF MARATHON 



29 



said no, and the messenger was hurled into a pit. And 
courageous Sparta said no, and the herald was thrown 
into a well. 

Then what did the Great King do? He planned to 
attack the little Greek country. And soon occurred 
the first struggle in the world's history between Asia 
and Europe. 

A great Persian army landed at the plain of Mar'a- 
thon near Athens. When the Athenians heard of this 
advance, they quickly despatched a messenger to the 
Spartans. Off ran the courier with the message, 
'^Come in all haste and save Athens." But said 
Sparta, '^You must wait a week, the law forbids us to 
engage in war before the full moon." And the ten 
thousand Athenian soldiers had to face the one hun- 
dred thousand Persians without Spartan help. 

^^We must march at once," said Mil-ti'a-des, the 
Athenian general. There was no time 
to wait for the full moon. From the 
rising ground he could see the Persian 
ships already in the bay of Marathon 
and their soldiers disembarking on the 
plain. At the general's command the 
Athenians marched down the rugged 
mountain roads until they came in 
sight of the huge army of the Persians 
drawn up in hues on the beach. Cour- 
age, indeed, was needed to face these 
hitherto unconquered foes. 

But what did the Persians see? Not linen tunics 
and wicker shields, not darts and light scimiters; but 




Miltiades 



30 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

heavy bronze armor and long spears. The soldiers of 
Athens were not only equipped for the fight ; they were 
men of undaunted courage. 

Now Miltiades hastily formed his ranks and ordered 
the charge. With their spears pointed, down rushed the 
Athenians. Soon there was a clash of arms and the 
Persian wings gave way. Another charge — this time 
upon the Persian center; another fierce struggle and 
the enemy were driven in confusion to their ships. 
''Burn them, burn the ships," was the command. 
And before they could set sail, seven Persian ships were 
burned. More than six thousand of the enemy per- 
ished in this battle, while the Athenian loss was not 
two hundred. At the close of the battle, it is said, 
one of the soldiers, named Eucles, covered with blood 
and wounds, ran to Athens to tell the joyful news. 
Almost exhausted with fighting, he was soon so weary 
that he could scarcely keep on his feet; but he 
struggled on. When he came to the edge of the city 
the people gathered around him. He reeled and fell 
dying to the ground. As he fell he said faintly, 
^^ Rejoice, we triumph," and the next moment he was 
dead. 

The battle of Marathon, which occurred 490 b.c, 
is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world, 
for that victory encouraged the Athenians to fight to 
the last, whatever might be the result. ''The Athenians 
succeed," wrote a Greek historian one hundred years 
later, "because they throw themselves into whatever 
they resolve to do." 

Now there was no need for a slave to say, "Master, 



LEONIDAS AND THE THREE HUNDRED 



31 



remember the Athenians." The Great King remem- 
bered them only too well. He took an oath that neither 
he nor his succe,ssors should rest until Greece was 
conquered. But as Darius was planning another inva- 
sion, he suddenly died. 



LEONIDAS AND THE THREE HUNDRED 

Greece was left alone for more than five years. Then 
Xerx'es, the son of the Great King, declared, '^My 
father's oath must be fulfilled." This had hardly been 
said when he led an army of half a million soldiers, 
with a fleet of more than a thousand ships, to finish 
the work that Darius had begun. 

When they heard of his coming, Sparta and Athens 
called a meeting to discuss plans for defense. Some 
of the Greek states refused to send representatives; 
they were jealous of Athens and Sparta. There was 
reason for alarm. Athens had sent a messenger to 
Delphi to see what the priestess of 
Apollo would advise. ^^When every- 
thing else in the land shall be taken," 
said the oracle, ''Zeus grants to Athene 
that the wooden wall alone shall re- 
main undestroyed, and it shall defend 
you and your children." What did 
this mean? 

A brave man who was known as 
The-mis'to-cles the Ready said that 
the wooden wall meant their ships, 
and he urged Athens to build a fleet. '^A country 
like Greece, surrounded by seas, must assert herself on 




Themistocles 



32 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

the waters," he said. ^' The city needs no ships," repHed 
others; 'Hhey are useless expense." But it was not 
long before Athens became the greatest naval power 
in Greece. 

When Xerxes and his great host came to the shore of 
the Hellespont, a narrow strait between Europe and 
Asia, he ordered his engineers to build two bridges, so 
that his army might cross the strait. The bridges 
were built, but a storm arose and destroyed them. 
And what did the angry king do? He commanded 
his generals to scourge the strait three hundred times, 
to teach the waters that he was their master. Then 
new bridges were built, and so great was the Persian 
army that it took them seven days and seven nights 
to pass over these bridges. 

Xerxes and his host soon entered Greece and reached 
a high mountain. Not far away, between the cliff and 
the sea, was the narrow pass of Ther-mop'ylse, guarded 
by Le-on'i-das, the king of Sparta. With him were 
three hundred Spartans and three thousand soldiers 
from other Greek states. When the allies saw the 
great Persian army advancing, they cried, ^'We had 
best retreat." ''Let not a man stir," said Leonidas. 

The Persian army then sent swift riders in advance 
to see whether the pass was guarded. The couriers 
returned with the report, ''We saw there bold men who 
were combing their long hair." "They are an easy 
prey," said Xerxes; "men who have time to give so 
much attention to dress are readily mastered." "But, 
O King," exclaimed the couriers, "they are Spartans, 
and it is accounted shameful at Sparta to go down into 



LEONIDAS AND THE THREE HUNDRED 33 

battle with uncombed hair.'' Then Xerxes ordered 
that the long-haired Spartans be brought to him alive. 
But this was no easy task. The Spartans and the 
allies stood their ground. The king of Persia at last 
sent an entire division of his army to try to force the 
pass. Again and again the Persians charged, but that 
solid line stood more firmly than before, and at sunset 
from his throne on the rocks, Xerxes saw that many 
of his men had fallen. 

The next morning another charge was ordered, and 
again the Greek spears did their work. ^^Bid the 
Immortals charge," then commanded the angry king. 
They were his royal bodyguard, and it was said of 
them that they could not be defeated. With their 
silver and gold-hilted lances the Immortals dashed 
against the Spartan spears, but their shining armor 
did not force the pass. 

When Xerxes saw that his favorites were driven 
back, he groaned in agony. It was now past sunset 
of the second day, and the Greeks were holding their 
position as firmly as ever. But in the darkness of 
night there crept a traitor to the Persian king telling 
him of a path by which his force could fall upon the 
Greeks. A deserter brought the news to Leonidas. 
^^Let us retreat before the Persians attack us on both 
sides at once," urged some of the Greeks. ^'The laws 
of Sparta bid her men to conquer or die," replied Leon- 
idas. ^'For my part I shall obey her laws." And this 
was also the answer of the three hundred Spartans who 
were with him. 

They did not wait for the Persians to advance, but 



34 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

they met the enemy and rushed upon them. It was 
a daring thing to do, and soon the brave Leonidas fell, 
and with him his three hundred Spartans. Later 
their names were engraved on a pillar and placed in a 
public square in Sparta, so that other Greeks might 
read and imitate their bravery. And at Thermopylae 
a monument in the shape of a lion was raised, and a 
pillar with the words: 

"Go, passer-by, at Sparta tell, 
Obedient to her law we fell." 

SALAMIS 

The taking of Thermopylse gave Xerxes an open 
road to Athens. As the oracle at Delphi had predicted 
that the Greek city would be destroyed, the Athenians 
hastily boarded their ships, and thus sought protection 
behind their ^^ wooden walls." 

Their great statesman, Themistocles, was eager to 
encounter the enemy on the waters. ''Those whp 
begin a race before the signal are scourged," he was 
told. ''That is true," said Themistocles, "but the 
laggards never win a crown." 

The oracle had said that Athens was doomed, and 
it was not long before the Persian army entered the 
deserted city and burned it. Now the only hope of 
the Athenians was in their fleet off the island of Sal'a- 
mis. Not far away was the magnificent armada of the 
Persians. Xerxes was proud of the fleet that he had 
brought safely into Grecian waters, and he ordered a 
throne to be built on a high cliff so that he could see 
his ships destroy the little Grecian fleet. 



THE CITY WALL 35 

Morning dawned and the Greeks were in the bay 
with the enemy in front of them, and Xerxes was 
on his throne ready for the battle. The fleets were 
soon face to face, and the fight began. For a time it 
seemed as if the Persians would win. But later, ship 
was dashed against ship and the proud Xerxes saw one 
vessel after another of his fleet destroyed. The conflict 
lasted from dawn until night. The Persians had twice 
as many ships, but the fierce attacks of the Greeks 
finally won the victory. 

Although a Spartan commanded the Greek fleet, 
Athens knew that the honor for the victory at Salamis 
belonged to Themistocles the Ready. Greek courage 
had saved Greece from the slavery of the East; it had 
done more than this, it had saved Europe from the 
rule of despots. If the Persian hordes had conquered 
Greece, they might have subdued all Europe and 
destroyed the growing civilization that afterward was 
transplanted to America. It is true then, as an 
American historian has said, that it was our battles 
that the brave Greeks fought at Marathon, Ther- 
mopylae, and Salamis — the battles of law and liberty. 

THE CITY WALL 

Xerxes had not yet abandoned the hope of con- 
quering the Greeks. He left his brother-in-law. Mar- 
do 'ni-us, in Greece with a splendid army to see what he 
could do. This satrap tried to persuade the Athenians 
to desert the other Greek states and to become an ally 
of Persia. ''So long as the sun holds his course, we 
will never be friends to Xerxes," they replied. ''Great 



36 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

as may be his power, Athens trusts to the aid of the 
gods and heroes whose temples he has burnt." 

In the meantime the Spartans had raised an army 
under the command of their king. They met the 
Persians near the city of Pla-te'a and there defeated 
them. Mardonius was killed. The Persian camp 
was sacked and wagonloads of silver and gold vessels 
and rich armor fell into the possession of the Greeks. 
The battle of Platea ended the Persian invasion of 
Greece. 

The Spartans marveled at the richness they saw in 
the Persian tents, and the king asked the slaves of 
Mardonius to prepare a meal such as they would provide 
for their master. When he saw the splendor of the 
feast — the gold and silver dishes, the rich cushions 
and carpets — he exclaimed, ''How absurd to go on a 
conquering expedition with all these encumbrances." 
And it is said that he refused to partake of the feast, 
but sat down to the plain Spartan meal. This splendor 
was not only in the Persian tents, but it was seen in the 
countless chariots, in the rich, glittering armor of the 
Immortals, in the burnished helmets of the soldiers, 
and in the silken canopies over the grandees. 

The Athenians now went back to Athens, but they 
found a ruined town — their houses and temples burned 
to the ground. They felt that their goddess Athene, 
the defender of their capital, had deserted them. But 
later what did they see? The olive tree, which she 
created when they named the city after her, was 
shooting out a long branch from its blackened trunk, 
and on the branch leaves were budding forth. ''Our 



THE CITY WALL 



37 



goddess is still with us," they joyfully exclaimed, and 
they interpreted the budding leaves as a sign to rebuild 
their city. 

At once the people of Athens went to work to build 
up their houses, and it was not long before they were 
provided with new homes. ''Let us build a wall and 
so strengthen our capital that we may not be driven 
out again," said Themistocles the Ready. 




Acropolis at Athens, in present condition 

This had hardly been said when every Athenian 
who could lift a block or push a barrow was working 
on the fortification. The wall w^as to be not only 
around the city, but it was to extend to her ports four 
miles away, and thus in time of war provisions could 
be brought in safety from her harbor. 

When Sparta heard that Athens was fortifying her- 
self, she tried to prevent it. She was jealous and 
desired to be mistress of Greece. ''We will build our 
wall and not have any words with the Spartans," said 
the Athenians. And the great wall sixty feet high, 
with huge stones projecting here and there, was built, 
and it stood for many, many years; but to-day no trace 
of it is left. 



38 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



PERICLES AND ATHENS 




Pericles 

From bust in the British 
JNIuseum 



It was about 460 B.C. when Per'i-cles became the 
leader in Athens. He was a favorite with the people, 
and through his influence some wise 
laws were passed. ''If anyone is 
accused of a crime, he should have 
a trial before a body of citizens," 
said Pericles. This was like the trial 
by jury to-day in our country. 
Then, too, he said that any Athe- 
nian employed in the army or navy 
should be paid for his services. But 
this was not all that Pericles accom- 
plished. He not only strengthened 
Athens, but he beautified it. It has 
been well said that he found the city of brick and left it 
of marble. 

In the center of the town was a great square-topped 
hill, rising to a height of two hundred feet. It was 
called the Ac-rop'o-lis, from two Greek words meaning 
''city height." It had been the ancient citadel of 
Athens, and there the early Athenian kings sat in judg- 
ment and assembled their councils. Later there were 
temples and houses erected on the hill, but the Per- 
sians had destroyed them. Now Pericles advised that 
on this Acropolis the Athenians should build a marble 
temple to their goddess Athene Parthenos (which means 
'■'the maiden Athene ")• 

Architects and sculptors from all parts of Greece came 
to Athens for work. The most famous sculptor of his 



PERICLES AND ATHENS 



39 




The "Winged 
Victory " 

Statue in the 
Louvre, Paris 



age was Phid'i-as, a friend of Pericles, and he it was 
who designed the Par'then-on, the marble temple of 
Athene. It was begun in 447 B.C. and it 
was completed in 438 b.c. It had a very 
beautiful colonnade of forty-six fluted 
columns, each thirty-five feet high, sup- 
porting the gabled roof. Within the 
colonnade were the solid walls enclosing 
two rooms, the chamber and the treasury 
of the goddess. It is said that the work- 
manship of the unseen parts was as per- 
fect as that of the parts which were seen. 
In front of the temple was the great 
bronze statue of Athene, the work of 
Phidias. The goddess was represented 
as the defender of the city, and the polished tip of 
her spear glittering in the sun could be seen by the 
mariner far out at sea, as he sailed toward Athens. 
The Parthenon was one of the wonders of the world; 

for nearly a thou- 
sand years it was 
the glorious temple 
to the Greek god- 
dess. Later it was 
converted into a 
Christian church, 
and still later into 
a Mo-ham 'me-dan 
mosque. In the 
latter part of the seventeenth century it was used by 
the Turks as a powder magazine. Then an explosion 




Parthenon at Athens (present condition) 



40 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

occurred which destroyed the building and left only a 
ruined colonnade. Pieces of the Parthenon sculpture 
are still seen in the ruins or in the Acropohs Museum. 
Other pieces were carried away and later acquired by 
an Englishman who bought them for the British 
Museum. But the splendid statues of Phidias have 
been destroyed. Copies of them have come down to 
us, and these furnish studies for artists and sculptors of 
our day. 

It is supposed that the bronze statue known as the 
Lemnian Athene was the work of Phidias. It was 
dedicated on the Acropolis by the Athenian colonists 
who had received free land in Lemnos. The beautiful 
head of this statue is now in Bo-lo'gna. 

Another great sculptor of Athens was Myron. He 
and Phidias studied under the same master. A copy 
of his bronze statue the Discus-thrower was found in 
Rome and is now in the Vatican, the residence of the 
Pope. But the most generally 
admired Greek statue is Aphro- 
dite of Melos (The Venus of Milo). 
We do not know who carved her 
beautiful figure. The statue was 
discovered in 1820 in a cave on 
the island of Melos, off the coast 
of Greece, and it is now in the 
Louvre, the great art gallery of 
Paris. 
^^^^^ The most famous pupil of 

Detail of statue by Praxiteles ^ ^ 

Phidias was Prax-it'el-es, an 
Athenian. He carved a beautiful statue of Hermes for 





PERICLES AND ATHENS 41 

the temple of Hera at Olympia. Hermes was the 
herald of Zeus, and the Greek sculptor represented him 
as taking his httle brother Di-on^-sus (the god of 
wine) to the nymphs to be reared by them. 

On the southeast slope of the Acropohs was the 
theater of Dionysus, named after 
the god of wine because the drama 
originated in the songs and dances 
in honor of Dionysus. The rising 
seats of the theater were cut in a 
semicircle into the rocky hill. 
There was no roof ; it was an open 
air theater, and the spectators 
could look beyond the stage across 
the blue Mgesm Sea. Twice a I^^st of Dionysus, 
year the masterpieces of the great ^^ ^^ 

Greek dramatists — ^^Es'chy-lus, Eu-rip^i-des, and Soph'o- 
cles — were presented. The performance began early 
in the morning and lasted all day. If a citizen was too 
poor to attend, Pericles secured for him an admission 
fee from the public treasury. The object of the theater 
was to educate, and largely through the influence of 
Pericles the theater became one of the most important 
institutions of Athens. The University of California 
has erected a beautiful open-air theater modeled after 
the theater of Dionysus. 

On the western side of the Acropolis, from the Par- 
thenon to the city, was a marble stairway of sixty steps. 
There were other splendid buildings erected in Athens 
— the The-se'um, a temple in memory of their ancient 
king, The'se-us; the Mu-se'um, where the young Athe- 



42 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

nians studied the arts sacred to the muses; the schools 
for the philosophers, which were colonnades of pillars 
supporting roofs to give protection from the sun. 
Besides the beautiful architecture there were the gar- 
dens of the Academy, dotted with statues, and the 
olive groves of the Ly-ce'um just outside the city walls. 
Pericles was at the head of Athens for nearly thirty 
years, and in that time the city had reason to be proud 
of herself. She then reached the height of her glory in 
art, and her masterpieces in sculpture have never been 
surpassed. 

THE GREEK BOY 

The houses of the Greeks were built around paved 
courts. In the middle of the court was a fountain and 
there was also an altar to the hero ancestor of the 
master of the house. This forefather was the guardian 
of the household, and before each meal offerings were 
made to him and wine poured out. The rooms of the 
houses were little occupied, for the Greeks enjoyed 
living in the open air. 

The Athenian child was in the care of a nurse until 
his seventh year. Then he was given into the charge 
of a trusted servant called a pedagogue (the word 
means ^'conductor of children")- At the age of seven 
the boy entered school accompanied by his pedagogue, 
whose duty it was to see that no harm would come 
to the youth on his way to school. He attended by 
turns the school for grammar, the school for gymnastics, 
and the school for music. In the first he was taught 
reading, writing, and the stories of Homer. 

About the middle of the sixth century B.C. Pi-sis tra- 



THE GREEK BOY 



43 



tus, a ruler of Athens, collected and arranged the poems 
of Homer and had them written down, after which no 
Greek was thought to be educated unless he thoroughly 
knew the ^^liad" and the ^'Odyssey." Before the 
time of Pisistratus there had been no written copy of 
these poems. 

The teacher in the school for grammar was called 
the grammarian. He often gave his lessons in the 
streets and on the public squares. 

In the school for gymnastics the youth received his 
instruction in physical training. 
This training began with the 
child and continued through old 
age. The exercises were wrest- 
ling, boxing, running, throwing 
the discus or quoit, fencing, and 
using the spear. The Athenian 
tried to overcome any physical 
defect or awkwardness, and no 
day was passed without some 
time being spent in the develop- 
ment of the body. In Greek 
art we see this perfection of the 
body expressed in marble and 
in color. Solon, one of the wise 
law-makers of Athens, placed 
physical and intellectual train- 
ing upon the same footing. ''Children," he said, 
''should above everything else learn to swim and to 
read." 

In the school for music the youth was taught to sing 




The Discus Thrower 

Statue by Myron 



44 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

and to play upon the stringed instrument, the lyre. 
The master would sing the song first, and then the 
pupil, and if the youth made mistakes he was often 
severely punished. 

The instruction in grammar, gymnastics, and music 
was for the wealthier class of citizens. The poorer 
class learned only reading, swimming, and a trade. 

In Sparta it was the law that when a child was born 
the father must take it before a council of old men, 
who examined the little stranger. If it was found not 
to be strong, the child was taken from its mother' and 
carried ofT to a mountain, where it died of hunger and 
exposure. If the council decided that the child was 
healthy, it was returned to the mother and remained 
in her care until it was seven years of age. Then the 
state took charge of the youth. 

To be a perfect soldier was the Spartan^s aim and 
ambition. He was never to turn his back in battle. 
As the son went off to war his mother gave him a shield 
saying, ^'With it or on it." That is, he was not to 
throw it away in flight, but bring it home honorably 
or be borne upon it as a dead warrior. 

The Spartan cared little for art and literature, but 
music and gymnastics were cultivated. Once a year 
there was an exhibition, where the youth showed the 
perfection of his physical condition and his skill in 
bodily movement. 

The Spartan boy was taught to read and to write, 
but above all, he learned to endure pain, to obey 
orders, to be respectful to his elders, not to speak un- 
less spoken to, and then his answers were to be as 



THE GREEK BOY 45 

short as possible. He went barefoot even in the coldest 
weather, he ate the plainest and coarsest food, and he 
slept on rushes and reeds which he had gathered by 
the river. 

He was trained even to steal, for in war he would 
often have to commit theft or go without food. The 
youth was praised if he could steal witbout being dis- 
covered; but if caught, he was punished. Nothing, 
however, deserved more merit than bearing pain with- 
out complaint. He who could do without food the 
longest, who could bear the most whipping without cry- 
ing, was indeed to be envied. His courage was tested at 
the temple of Artemis, where he was thrashed severely. 
And it is said that many a Spartan boy allowed himself 
to be flogged to death rather than to complain. The 
story is told of a little fellow who stole a young fox 
and hid it under his tunic for fear of being discovered. 
The imprisoned fox began to gnaw at the boy's chest, 
but the little fellow did not utter a groan or a cry, 
and the fox finally bit him to death. And to-day we 
use the phrase "brave as a Spartan." 

The Spartan youth would often be questioned by 
his elders and the boy was required to make his answers 
brief and forceful. And our term "laconic," referring 
to a short, effective answer, comes from Laconia, 
another name for Sparta. 

Respect for old age was probably the most commend- 
able lesson that the Spartan youth was taught. It is 
said that at one time an aged man entered an assembly 
of Greeks. The Athenians laughed at him, but every 
Spartan arose and offered him a seat. "The Athenians 



46 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



know politeness/' said the old man, ''but the Spartans 
practise it." 

We thus see that at Sparta physical strength and 
military skill were the qualities most desired; while 
at Athens, although the body was not neglected, the 
chief attention was given to the cultivation of the 
mind. 

THE OLYMPIC GAMES 

There was a great festival that both Spartan and 
Athenian attended, as well as Greeks from other states 
— the Olympic Games. There were many joyous 
celebrations, with games, held in the different cities of 
Greece, but the Olympic festival was the most famous. 
It was held in honor of their great god Zeus, in mid- 
summer, each fourth year, at Olympia 
in Elis, a state northwest of Sparta. 
During the interval when these games 
took place a sacred truce v/as observed 
throughout Greece, arms were laid 
aside, and all hostilities between the 
Greek states were suspended for a 
time. The four-year period was 
known as an 0-lym 'pi-ad, and this be- 
came a unit in counting time. Events 
were dated from the first recorded 
Olympiad, which went back to 
776 B.C., when a certain athlete won the foot race — 
a dash of more than two hundred yards. . For example, 
we might say that an event occurred in Washington's 
administration ; the Greeks would say that it happened 
in the fifth Olympiad. 




Zeus 

From a bust in the 
Vatican, Rome 



THE OLYMPIC GAMES 47 

At Olympia was an ancient temple for the worship 
of Zeus. It was said to have been built by the mighty 
Her'cu-les, the son of Zeus, who was noted for manly 
strength and patient endurance. Later the temple was 
adorned with beautiful sculptures. In the sacred 
chamber stood the great statue of Zeus — the master- 
piece of Phidias. It was forty feet high and placed on 
a twelve-foot pedestal. The god of gods was repre- 
sented as seated on his throne, which was made of cedar 
and decorated with gold and precious stones. His 
body was of ivory, with drapery and ornaments of fine 
gold. His brow was crowned with a wreath of olive, 
and in his right hand he held his scepter. 

The legend tells us that Hercules not only built the 
temple, but he founded the Olympic Games in honor 
of Zeus, and it was said that he acted as umpire at the 
first festival. 

At these games there were contests in running, jump- 
ing, hurling the spear, throwing the quoit, wrestling, box- 
ing. Then there were also chariot races and horse races. 

The judges gave to each winner a palm branch, and 
on the last day of the festival they placed a wreath of 
olive from the sacred tree of Hercules upon the victor's 
head. But the highest honor that could come to any 
competitor was to be proclaimed "four-years champion 
of Greece." 

On his return to his native city the champion was 
greeted as a conquering hero and a life-size statue of 
him was placed in the grove at Olympia. The Athe- 
nians did even more than this — they pensioned their 
champion for life and their poets sang his praises. 



48 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



The most talented men in Greece came to the 
Olympic festival. The poet, the musician, the philos- 
opher, the historian were all there, entertaining the 
people between the games. He-rod'o-tus, the ''Father 
of History," would read his ''History of the Persian 
War," and Pindar, the great poet, would recite his odes. 
And the people were always a ready audience eager to 
hear and see what was new in poetry and song. 

The Olympic Games continued for more than three 

centuries after the birth of 
Christ. In recent years there 
has been an effort made to 
revive them. Representa- 
tives from different nations 
met and formed an inter- 
national Olympic Commit- 
tee. At the suggestion of 
this committee a series of 
festivals was begun, the 
games to be four years apart 
as in the old Greek times. 
It was arranged that the 
first of the series should be 
held in Athens in 1896; the second in Paris, 1900; the 
third, in St. Louis, 1904; the fourth in London, 1908, 
and the fifth in Rome in 1912. Some of the old con- 
tests of Greece were revived, such as throwing the 
discus and the javelin, and above all, the jMarathon 
race. In 1896 this race was won by a Greek, but in 
1908 by an American. 




Infant Hercules 

Sculpture in the Louvre, Paris 




CHAPTER III 
Rulers of Greece 

HE Olympic Games gave the inde- 
pendent states of Greece some- 
thing in common. And it was 
a good thing that they were thus 
brought together, for often the 
states were jealous of one another 
and quarrels among them were 
frequent. The states of Greece were not united by a 
common government. Some of them were ruled by 
kings, others by a few men who had all the power; 
such states were called oligarchies. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS 

In ancient times Athens had been a kingdom. One of 
her early kings was Theseus, and his descendants ruled 
for many years. Then a people from the north invaded 
the state, and the contest was decided by a duel. The 
Athenian champion won and he was made king. At 
his death Codrus, his son, became ruler. Now another 
tribe, the Do'ri-ans, invaded Athens. The oracle at 
Delphi had said, ''If the Dorians slay the Athenian 
king, they shall come to sorrow." The battle began, 
and the Dorians were indeed careful not to touch King 
Codrus. ''What does this strange conduct mean?'' 

49 



50 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




The Delphic Oracle 

From a Greek vase 



asked the king. And he was told what the priestess at 
Delphi had said. Then Codrus threw off his royal 
dress and put on the garb of a common soldier and ap- 
peared before the ene- 
my's camp. He defied 
the sentinels, and they, 
not knowing that he 
was the Athenian king, 
struck him dead. When 
the Dorians heard what 
had happened they 
quickly left their tents 
and hurried home. 
The Athenians 
grieved for their brave ruler. '^\thens shall have no 
more kings," they said. They thought they would 
thus honor Codrus, who had sacrificed his life for the 
state, and that no one less noble should wear the 
title. After that their ruler was called an archon, 
and he was elected from the family of Codrus for 
a term of ten years. 

Later a body of nine archons was chosen from the 
nobility, and they were elected annually. The first 
archon had charge of the family rights, such as mar- 
riages and the fortunes of heiresses. The second was 
judge in cases of murder, and he was also the guardian 
of strangers in the city. The other six presided as 
judges in less important cases. The people had no 
voice in the government. There were no written laws, 
and the archons were enriching themselves at the 
expense of the state. 



SOLON 51 

The people then demanded that the laws be published 
so that they would know whether the archons were 
ruHng with justice. Accordingly Draco, one of the 
archons, drew up a written code of laws, and they 
were engraved on wooden blocks and set up in 
pubHc places, where all might read them. ''These 
laws are written in blood," said the people. The 
least offense was considered a crime, and there was 
the death penalty for stealing even a cabbage. The 
people were not contented, and they drove Draco out 
of Athens. 

SOLON 

Later Solon was chosen first archon. He altered 
the laws and wrote them on tablets 
and placed them in the pubhc squares. 
The Athenians were pleased. ' ' Solon 
is the wisest man that ever lived," 
they said. Only those who owned 
property could be elected to ofhce, 
and they were elected every year in 
a general assembly of all the people. 
As it was not convenient for the 
people to meet frequently, they delegated their power 
to a council (senate) of four hundred members. But 
when there was a question pertaining to war or peace, 
the General Assembly voted; and if a man was thought 
to be dangerous to the state, the people had the power 
to banish him. 

But this was not all that Solon did. He estab- 
lished a Court of Justice consisting of archons and 
ex-archons, which heard and decided cases involving 




52 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

capital punishment. This court met on the hill of 
Ares and was called the Ar'e-op'a-gus (Ares' hill), 
and it became one of the most respected of ancient 
courts. 

Solon had ruled for some time and he now desired to 
go on a long journey. But before he went he made the 
people of Athens promise that they would not change 
the laws for ten years. 

On his journey he visited the rich Croesus in Lyd'i-a. 
The proud monarch showed him all the splendor of 
his kingdom. He then asked, ''Who is the happiest 
of men?'^ ''An honest man," replied Solon, "who 
lived uprightly, was neither rich nor poor, had good 
children, and died bravely for his country." "Who 
is the next happiest?" inquired Croesus. "Two 
brothers," answered the Athenian, "who were so loving 
and dutiful to their mother that when she desired to 
go to the temple of Hera, they yoked themselves to her 
car and drew her thither, then having given this proof 
of their love, they lay down to sleep, and so died without 
pain or grief." "And what do you think of me?" 
then asked the rich monarch, much annoyed. "Ah," 
said Solon, "call no man happy until you see the end 
of his life." 

There happened to be at the court of Croesus an 
Egyp'tian slave named ^sop, who gave his advice in 
fables. This was the same ^Esop whose fables of the 
wolf and the lamb, the fox and the grapes, the crow 
and the pitcher, we know to-day. And when ^Esop 
saw the displeasure of Croesus he said, "Visits to 
kings should be seldom or else pleasant." "No," 



SOLON 



53 



replied Solon, ^^ visits to kings should be seldom or else 
profitable." 

After many years of absence, Solon returned to 
Athens and he found his nephew 
Pisistratus ruling with unlimited 
power. In those days such a 
ruler was called a tyrant, 
whether he ruled well or ill. 
Although Pisistratus belonged 
to the aristocracy (from Greek 
words meaning ^^rule by rich 
men")? he sided with the poor, 
and he did some good things 
for Athens. He collected the 
poems of Homer, he opened 
his library to the pubUc, he im- 
proved the roads and laid out 
a pubUc park, the Lyceum, 
just outside the city walls. At 
his death his sons succeeded 
him, but they were not popu- 
lar; one was killed and the 
other was forced to leave the 
state. ^sop 

Later Clis'the-neS, a noble- Redrawn from the painting by Ve- 
1 . I, lasquez in Museum, Madrid 

man, proposed a series of 

changes in Solon's constitution. Holding property 
was no longer to be a qualification for office. The 
rich and the poor, the nobleman and the commoner, 
could share in the government. Clisthenes divided 
the state into one hundred districts which had a local 




54 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

self-government with a head corresponding to our 
mayor. He next divided the districts among ten new 
tribes. These met in a general assembly ten times a 
year on a hill west of the Acropohs. It was not con- 
venient for all the tribes to meet so often in Athens, 
so each tribe selected a delegation of fifty men, and these 
made up the Council of Five Hundred. There were 
still the nine archons who were elected annually, and 
there was also the Areopagus, the Court of Justice. 

Athens thus became a democracy (from the Greek 
meaning ''rule by the people"), and this was her govern- 
ment when Pericles became leader. A Greek historian 
has well said that during that great period of her glory 
Athens was a democracy in name only; in reality she 
was ruled by her ablest citizen. 

THE STORY OF SOCRATES 

At no period in the history of Athens was public 
speaking so popular as in the Golden Age of Pericles 
(B.C. 464-429). The Sophists, a class of philosophers, 
would go from place to place teaching the art of public 
speaking, and they would charge high rates for their 
tuition. Since by clever argument they often made 
the worse appear the better reason — error appear 
truth, and injustice, justice — their instruction came to 
mean arguing with the intention of deceiving. And 
to-day the term '' sophistry " means deceptive reasoning. 

But the greatest of the philosophers (lovers of wis- 
dom) was Soc'ra-tes. He was not a Sophist. He did 
not pretend to have wisdom, although he was the 
wisest of men. He was always studying and asking 



THE STORY OF SOCRATES 55 

questions, trying to find out the exact truth about 
everything. He had many followers among the young 
men, and he would teach them in the groves or in the 
market-place or on the corners of the streets. He 
would not take pay for his teaching, although he was 
poor. He went barefoot and wore the same threadbare 
coat all the year round. 

He was not attractive in appearance — he had a large, 
bald head, thick lips, bulging eyes, and a flat nose. 
He was gentle, however, and he bore his hardships 
without ever murmuring. Even his scolding wife, 
Xan-tip^pe, could not make him angry. Although 
by nature he had a violent temper, he had learned 
to control it. To-day her name stands for a scold. 
Once she became so impatient that she threw a jug of 
water on him. But he smilingly replied, ''I have often 
observed, Xantippe, that rain follows thunder." 

The priestess at Delphi had said, ''Socrates is the 
wisest man in Greece." ''This cannot be true," 
replied the philosopher, "for I know, myself, that I 
know nothing." And he soon discovered by cross- 
questioning that the Sophists w^ere more ignorant than 
he, for he knew that he did not know, while they would 
never admit their ignorance. He would not only 
question the Sophists, but men in every walk of life — 
statesmen and soldiers, artists and shopkeepers. He 
would first ask them to express their views on a subject, 
and then by questioning them he would reveal their 
errors. And to-day this method of questioning is 
called Socratic, after the Greek philosopher. 

Socrates had many friends, but he had also many 




56 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

enemies who were jealous of him. And one of these 
enemies was Ar'is-toph'a-nes, a writer of comic plays. 
He wrote a comedy and called it ^'The Clouds." The 
gods mentioned in it were not those of Mount Olympus, 
but the Clouds, the Air, and the Tongue. And it was 
not necessary to tell the Athenians whom the teacher 
and the pupil in the play repre- 
sented. They were well marked 
by the masks which the actors 
wore. In those days public men 
were frequently ridiculed on the 
stage. And this time there was 
no mistaking the characters. They 

Masks worn by Greek • j. j i r o i. j u- 

Actors were mtended lor bocrates and his 

pupil Arci-bi'a-des. The pupil was 
represented as an attractive young man who, advised 
by his teacher, bought horses and then cheated his 
creditors. He not only treated his father with dis- 
respect, but also Zeus and Athene. 

It is said that Socrates once attended the play, and 
he was asked why he went. ^' To see the faults of which 
I am accused," was his answer. ''There may be some 
that I can correct." 

''The Clouds" amused the Athenians at the theater 
Dionysus for more than twenty years; they would talk 
about the play and laugh at the jokes. 

Alcibiades had been a favorite with the people, but 
there came a time when he turned traitor, and then 
the Athenians said, "Aristophanes is right, Socrates 
has corrupted our young men." 

The philosopher was nearly seventy years of age 



THE STORY OF SOCRATES 57 

when there appeared a charge against him — accusing 
him of teaching disrespect to the gods and ruining young 
men. There were many stories about the gods and 
goddesses that Socrates did not beUeve. And although 
he never heard of the true God, he knew there must 
be a wise Being who governs the world and knows all 
things. 

Finally there were orders for his arrest, and he was 
brought before the council of the Areopagus to plead 
his own cause. ^^ Because I am thought to have some 
power of teaching youth, my judges," he said, "is 
that a reason why I should suffer death? I have 
always told young men to be good and virtuous. I 
have never turned the gods into ridicule, for it is wrong 
to make fun of anything which is regarded as sacred 
by others. My whole life is the best defense that I 
can offer. '^ But the judges did not listen to his plea 
and he was sentenced to death. 

The death penalty, however, could not be carried out 
for thirty days, as a ship had just set sail for Delos 
bearing offerings to Apollo, and it was the law 
that no one could be put to death while this 
ship was on its way either going or returning. 
Socrates therefore remained in prison during 
this time. His friends were allowed to visit 
him, and he talked to them about his death. • ^ Greek 
He told them to love virtue and to do right, 
and not to repay evil with evil. ^^I cannot bear to 
think of your dying innocent,'' said Crito, one of his 
pupils. ''What!" exclaimed Socrates, ''would you 
think it better for me to die guilty?" 




58 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The ship had now returned, and at sunset Socrates 
was to drink the hemlock, a deadly poison. '^Let us 
bribe the jailer/' said the anxious Crito. '^It is against 
the law," replied Socrates, ''and I have never disobeyed 
the law." And he told his pupils not to forget the 
lessons that he had taught them. He then calmly 
drank the hemlock, and soon sleep overtook him, and 
thus he died. 

His greatest pupil was Plato, who not only recorded 
the last conversations of Socrates, but continued the 
teaching of his master. ''Thus," said Plato, "died the 
man who, of all with whom we were acquainted, was 
in death the noblest, in life the wisest and best." 

THE BOYHOOD OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

Plato's greatest pupil was Ar'is-tot-le, who was the 
teacher of Alexander, the King of Mac'e-do'ni-a, a 
country north of Greece. Alexander was the son of 
King Philip U, who had successfully invaded Greece 
and who was recognized as that country's champion 
against its old enemy, Persia. Philip had caused one 
Greek city to go against another. "Suppose that 
you have one of the gods as surety that Philip will 
leave you untouched," said De-mos'the-nes to the 
Athenian Assembly, " in the name of the gods, it is 
a shame for you to sacrifice the rest of Greece." 
Demosthenes was the greatest of Greek orators, and 
those orations in the Athenian Assembly we know 
to-day as the " Philippics." Philip was assassinated, 
however, before he could begin the invasion of Asia. 

Alexander was only twenty years of age when he 



THE BOYHOOD OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



59 



succeeded his father to the throne. x\s a boy he was 
known for his will power; whatever he set out to do. 
he was determined to accomplish. A beautiful black 
horse had been brought to the 
King of Macedon, but the ani- 
mal was balky and he would let 
no one mount him. ' ' That horse 
is wild and untrained/' said 
Philip, and he ordered him to 
be taken away. "No/' ex- 
claimed Alexander, ^Hhe attend- 
ants have not the skill to handle 
the animal. He is too good a 
horse for those men to spoil in 
that way." ^^What do you 
mean by criticizing your elders 
as if you were wiser than they," 
demanded Philip, ^'or know so 
much more about handling 
horses than they do?" ^'I can 
manage him better than anyone 
else," was the reply, ^'if you will 
only give me a chance." ^^But if you don't succeed, 
what penalty are you willing to pay for your bold- 
ness?" asked the king. ''I'll pay the price of the 
horse," was the answer. 

The bystanders laughed at him, but that did not 
daunt the young prince. He walked up to the animal, 
took him by the bridle, and turned his head toward 
the sun, for he had observed that the horse was afraid 
of his own shadow. The youth stroked him gently, 




Demosthenes 



60 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



and when he had somewhat subdued him, he sprang 
into the saddle and started off at full speed. It was 
not long before he came galloping back, and as he dis- 
mounted, his father 
kissed him and said, 
^^My son, seek thee 
a kingdom suited to 
thy powers; Mace- 
donia is not broad 
enough for thee." 

The young prince 
was always eager to 
do something. At 
one time when news 
came that Philip 
had won a great 
battle and had cap- 
tured a city, Alex- 
ander exclaimed to 
several of his play- 
fellows, ^'Father 
will get everything 
in advance, boys; 
he will not leave 
any great task for me to share with you.'^ 

It is said that once during the king's absence the 
youth entertained a body of special ambassadors from 
the Persian court. The conversation of the boy 
aroused the admiration of the Persians. He asked 
them about the length of their roads, the methods of 
land travel, what kind of soldier the Shah was, how 




Alexander training Bucephalos 



THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER 61 

large was the Persian army, and what made Persia a 
great empire. 

When Alexander was twelve years of age he was sent 
to Aristotle's school, which was held in a grove. There 
he met the sons of other kings. The master would 
often walk with his pupils in the shady paths, instruct- 
ing them all the while. He taught them the poems of 
Homer, and it is said that Alexander could recite the 
^^ Iliad" from beginning to end. Aristotle would tell 
his pupils to be true and brave and to cultivate noble 
friendships. One day he asked them, ^'When you be- 
come king in your father's stead, what favor do you 
think you will show me, your old teacher?" ''You 
shall dine at my table," said one of the princes, ^' and 
I will make the court show you honor and respect." 
''I will make you my chief treasurer," answered another, 
''and I will consult you as adviser in all that is brought 
me for decision." And then Aristotle turned to Alex- 
ander and asked, "My son, what do you propose to do 
with me, your old teacher, when you come to sit upon 
the throne of your father, Philip?" "What right have 
you to ask me such questions about that which the 
future has yet to bring?" was the reply. "As I have 
no assurance of the morrow, I can only say when the 
day is come; then I will give you answer." "Well 
said," exclaimed Aristotle; "thou wilt one day be the 
greatest king of all." 

THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER 

And now let us see whether this prophecy was ful- 
filled. Like his father, Alexander turned his attention 



62 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

to an attack upon Persia. But he first visited the chief 
cities of Greece, to let them know that he was their 
master. At Corinth he called upon Di-og'e-nes, who 
belonged to a class of philosophers called Cynics (from 
the Greek word meaning "si dog")- The Cynics ridi- 
culed the actions of men. Alexander found Diogenes 
sitting in a huge earthenware tub. He introduced 
himself, ^^I am Alexander the King." ^^And I am 
Diogenes the Cynic," was the reply. ''Can I do any- 
thing for you, Diogenes?" asked Alexander. ''Only 
stand out of my sunshine," growled the Cynic. And 
as the king went away he exclaimed, "If I were not 
Alexander, I would be Diogenes." He no doubt meant 
that if he were not to become master of the world, he 
would prefer to be the Cynic who despised earthly 
things. 




Greek Horsemen 

From the Parthenon 

Alexander was now ready to attack Persia, and in the 
spring (334 B.C.) he landed in Asia Minor with more 
than thirty-five thousand Greeks and Macedonians. 
He soon met a Persian army much larger than his own. 
A terrible battle was fought; Alexander won, and it 
was not long before he became master of Asia Minor. 

In the town of Gordium he entered a temple where 



THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER 



63 



was the sacred chariot of old King Gordius. The yoke 
of the chariot was fastened to the pole by a knot, of 
tough fiber. ''He who can untie that knot/^ declared 
the oracle, ''will become the master of Asia.'' But 
Alexander did not try to untie it, he cut it with one 
stroke of his sword. The people looked upon the deed 
as an unfavorable omen. " He will become our master," 
they said. And to-day we apply the term "Gordian 
knot" to any difficulty demanding decided action. 

Later, on his march, Alexander met a queen of a 
certain province, who desired to adopt him as her son. 
She begged him to take all her best cooks with him to 
provide his meals for the future. " No," said Alexander, 
"my master, Aristotle, has given me the best recipe 
for an appetite.'^ "What is it?" inquired the queen. 
"A march before daybreak as the sauce 
for my dinner," answered the king, 
"and a light dinner as the sauce for 
my supper." 

He told his soldiers not to plunder 
the country, for it belonged to him, 
and that the people were as much 
his subjects as they were. He then 
marched south and defeated a Persian 
army of six hundred thousand led by 
their king. The Persian monarch made 
his escape, but his wife, mother, and 
children were taken captives, and it is 
said that Alexander treated them with 
respect and kindness. He now took 
the title of King of Persia. It was not long before he 




Osiris 

An Egyptian god 



64 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



entered Egypt and was welcomed by the people, who 
were tired of Persian rule. Here he founded Alexandria, 
which later became the foremost city of the world. 

He then marched southeast into unknown country 
and led his army over great deserts into the plains of 
northern India. It is said that he treated honorably 
the people he conquered. The Indian king, Porus, 
made a bold stand, but he was finally overpowered and 
captured. Alexander asked him how he expected to 
be treated. ''Like a king," was the reply. ''That 
you certainly shall be," said Alexander. 

His soldiers were so worn out with marching that 
when they reached the banks of the Hy'pha-sis they 
refused to go farther, and Alexander was compelled to 
return homeward. He thought that he had reached 
nearly the end of the world. The return journey was 
not easy over burning sands in the scorching heat of a 
noonday sun. Often the soldiers' thirst could not be 
satisfied. At one time a little water was brought to 

Alexander, but he poured it 
away and said, "I do not 
care to take what all cannot 
share." 

They at last reached Baby- 
lon, one of the capitals of the 
Persian Empire, and Alexan- 
der decided to make this city 
the seat of his mighty king- 
dom. He adopted many Per- 
sian customs. Seated on his golden throne, he received 
ambassadors from every known people in Europe and 




The Emblem of Persia 




THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER 65 

Asia; and sad to say, in his Persian mode of living he 
forgot some of the teachings of his old master Aristotle. 
But he was ruler of a great empire only two years 
when he was attacked by a fever and died at the age 
of thirty-two (323 b.c). 

Alexander had ruled for twelve years, and in that 
short time he had become master of 
nearly all the known world, and to- 
day he is called in history Alexander 
the Great. 

In his conquest he founded seventy 
cities and threw open the East to the 
wisdom and freedom of the Greeks, 
and it is said that wherever he went 
he left something better than he 
found. But he did more than this; ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ 
he enlarged the map of the world by exploring un- 
known lands and making India know^n to the West. 

After Alexander's death his empire was divided and 
PtoFe-my, one of his favorite generals, received Egypt 
as his share. Its capital, Arex-an'dri-a, not only 
became the world's intellectual center, as Athens had 
been in the Age of Pericles, but it becam^e the chief 
commercial center between the East and the West. 

The city was laid out in straight parallel streets, one 
of which extended westward and was two hundred feet 
wide. It contained magnificent houses, temples, and 
public buildings, and it was intersected by another 
street of the same breadth and grandeur. 

Ptolemy wrote a history of Alexander the Great 
and he founded the famous library of more than four 



66 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



hundred thousand manuscripts, which attracted to 
Alexandria learned men from all parts of the world. 
His son, Ptolemy II, erected the first lighthouse on 
the island of Pharos at the mouth of the harbor 
of Alexandria. It was one of the wonders of the 
world, and to-day our English word ''pharos" means 
'' lighthouse." 

Years later (139 B.C.) there lived in Alexandria 
Clau'di-us Ptore-mse'us, who was a famous geogra- 
pher, and his geography was a standard text until the 
fifteenth century. He told of the roundness of the 
earth. Columbus studied his work and it, no doubt, 
aided him in his western voyage. 




A Grecian Battle with Elephants from India 
From a sarcophagus in the Capitol INIuseum, Rome 




CHAPTER IV 

Rome and the Romans 

HE Greeks, as we have seen, 
contributed much to our Ameri- 
can civilization; but other 
ancient peoples did the same, 
especially the Romans. 

THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS 

Rome was known as the City of the Seven Hills. 
It grew in power until it became the seat of an empire, 
the greatest empire of the ancient world. 

Legend tells us that Rome was founded about three 
hundred years after the fall of Troy. One of the 
heroes of Troy, who had fought bravely on the losing 
side, was ^E-ne'as. He was said to be a descendant 
of Jupiter and a son of the beautiful goddess Venus, 
^neas left the ruined city and became a wanderer. 
After visiting the different countries about the Mediter- 
ranean, he settled on the western coast of Italy, near 
the mouth of the Timber, where he lived with a people 
called Latins. The King of the Latins had a beautiful 
daughter, La-vin'ia, who became the wife of the Trojan 
wanderer. The story of iEneas is told in a long Latin 
poem called the JE-ne'id, written by Vir'gil, one of the 

67 



68 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



greatest of the Roman poets. And to-day this poem 
is read in the high school. 

Three hundred years after the coming of ^neas, one 
of his descendants became the founder of the wonderful 
City of the Seven Hills, that was destined to rule the 
world. 

This is the well-known story : Rom'u-lus and Remus 

were twin baby 
boys, the sons 
of a king. But 
a wicked uncle, 
their father's 
own brother, 
seized the 
throne, mak- 
ing himself 
king, and threw 
the twins into 
the river Tiber. 
Romulus and Remus were not drowned, however. They 
were washed ashore near the foot of the Para-tine, one 
of the famous seven hills, and found there by a shep- 
herd; the story tells us that a mother-wolf nursed them 
with her cubs. They grew to be men, handsome and 
strong, and leaders among the shepherds with whom 
they lived. One day their aged grandfather, who was 
still living, recognized them as the long-lost twins. 
Soon they made war upon their unworthy uncle, slew 
him, and restored the throne to the rightful king, their 
father. 

Not long after this, in the year 753 B.C., Romulus 




Romulus and Remus guarded by Shepherds 



HORATIUS AT THE BRIDGE 69 

founded a city on the Palatine Hill and called it Rome, 
after his own name. His followers were called Romans. 
Many of the discontented came from the surrounding 
country to Rome and helped to build the new city, and 
it grew very rapidly. Romulus was king for thirty- 
seven years, when, the legend says, he was carried to 
the skies, and was afterward worshiped as a Roman 
god. 

Such is the story of the beginning of Rome. We 
need not beUeve all of it. No doubt many of the in- 
cidents are fanciful. But the Romans believed them 
for hundreds of years, and perhaps they were in part 
founded on real happenings. As the story goes (and 
this portion of it may be true) Rome had seven kings; 
its people were warlike and fought with their neighbors 
on all sides, usually winning their battles and extending 
their territory. 

We have noticed that the Romans began their city 
on the Palatine Hill; but it was not long before they 
united with a people called Sa'bines, who occupied the 
Quirl-nal Hill, and the two became one city. The 
next hill to be annexed was the Cseli-an Hill. And 
so it continued until all the seven hills were included 
in the city, and then a great wall was built around it. 

HORATIUS AT THE BRIDGE 

During the period of the seven kings, nearly 250 
years, the Romans were at war most of the time, and 
many were the stories of heroic deeds of those ancient 
wars. Let us notice one, the story of Ho-ra'ti-us at 
the bridge. 

The last of the seven kings was Tar'quin. He was a 



70 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

tyrant. He laid heavy burdens on the people and 
refused to permit them to assemble for the festivals 
to which they had been accustomed for many years. 
At length they rose against him, drove him out of the 
city, and set up a republic. 

Tarquin appealed to the E-trus'cans, a neighboring 
people who occupied E-tru'ri-a, across the Tiber from 
Rome. A large army was raised to march upon Rome. 
It was led by Lars Por'sen-na, prince of Clu'si-um, a 
city of Etruria. 

When the Romans saw the great army, with its 
thousands of gleaming spears, approaching the Tiber 
they were dismayed. They had no such army to 
march against the Etruscan legions. AVhat could be 
done? There was a wooden bridge across the Tiber 
and the enemy was rapidly approaching it. If only 
the bridge could be destroyed, the city might yet be 
saved. Men were sent to cut it down, but before 
they could finish the work the enemy came up. 

Now rushed forward a young man named Horatius 
and declared, ^^If two others will go with me I will go 
to the farther end of the bridge and keep the enemy at 
bay till the bridge can be destroyed." As soon as he 
said this, two young men leaped forward and the brave 
three were soon at the far end battling like giants with 
the advance guard of the enemy. 

Meanwhile the men with axes were cutting away the 
bridge, striking blow after blow upon the heavy 
timbers. Soon the bridge began to totter. The 
people called to Horatius and his companions to hurry 
across and save their lives. The two men ran back. 



HORATIUS AT THE BRIDGE 



71 



But not Horatius; he remained and fought the enemy 
single-handed. Then came the crash of breaking 
timbers and the 
bridge fell into the 
water below. Hora- 
tius then, with a 
prayer to Father 
Tiber, leaped into 
the stream, with his 
helmet and arms, 
and swam bravely 
to the other shore. 
He was received 
with wild shouts and 
cheering, and his 
name became a 

household word through all the later history of Rome. 
Lars Porsenna turned back with his army and the 
city was saved. Lord Ma-cau'lay wrote a ballad on 
Horatius at the Bridge. Here are two of the stanzas: 

"Hew down the bridge, Sir Consul, 

With all the speed ye may; 
I with two more to help me 

Will hold the foe at ba}^ 
In yon straight path a thousand 

May well be stopped by three; 
Now who will stand on either hand 

And keep the bridge with me?" 




The Dauntless Three 



And still his name sounds stirring 

Unto the men of Rome, 
As the trumpet blast that cries to them 

To charge the Volscian home. 



72 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

And wives still pray to Juno 

For boys with hearts as bold 
As he who kept the bridge so well 

In the brave days of old. 

THE SACRED MOUNT 

It was in the year 509 B.C. that the Roman people 
drove out their last king and set up a republic. '* There 
shall never be another king/' they said, and the repub- 
lic lasted for five hundred years. Instead of a king 
they elected two consuls, who held their power for one 
year only. But in time of great danger a dictator was 
appointed for six months and was given the power of 
a king. 

The Romans, like most peoples, came to be divided 
into two classes — the rich and the poor. The rich 
were called pa-tri'cians, and the poor, ple-be'ians. 
The patricians had control of the government, held 
all the high offices, and lived within the city. The 
plebeians were for the most part farmers who lived 
outside the city walls. They made up the armies and 
the patricians commanded them. When an enemy 
approached, the rich man's home was protected by 
the city walls, but the poor man's farm was overrun, 
his crops destroyed, and his house burned. Then he 
had to borrow money from the rich to begin anew. 

Were the patricians grateful to the plebeians for 
protecting the city, and would they lend them money 
on easy terms? No; on the contrary, they charged 
high interest and made harsh laws against debtors. 
If a man could not pay his debts he was thrown into 
a dungeon or sold, with his family, into slavery. 



THE SACRED MOUNT 73 

One day a man in ragged garments, his face showing 
starvation, ran into the Forum, or market-place. A 
crowd gathered about him and he told his pitiful story. 
He had been in many wars in defense of Rome. The 
armies had destroyed his crops, driven off his cattle, 
and burned his home. He then borrowed money and 
the interest was so high that the debt increased. He 
sold his farm; but still he could not pay all and he 
was thrown into a dungeon, from which he had just 
escaped. He bared his body to show the scars he 
had received in the wars. 

The people around him became excited. They 
cried out against the cruel patricians. The plebeians 
thereupon decided to leave Rome, and though there was 
a foreign army approaching, they refused to enlist as 
soldiers. They crossed the An'i-o, a little stream that 
flows into the Tiber a few miles from Rome. Here 
they encamped on a hill, which was ever afterward 
called Sacred Mount, and they decided to build a city 
of their own. 

The patricians quickly saw that they could not get 
along without the common people, and they sent 
messengers to persuade them to come back. The 
plebeians agreed to return on the condition that all 
prisoners for debt be released and that henceforth they 
should have officers of their own who could veto or 
cancel unjust taws. The patricians consented to this 
and the two parties were reconciled. These officers 
of the plebeians were called Tribunes of the People. 
This was the first step made by the people in gaining 
power in the government of Rome, 



74 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The story of the plebeians and Sacred Mount may 
be founded in fact, but it belongs to the age of legend, 
as does also the following story of Cin-cin-na'tus. 

CINCINNATUS 

About fifty years after the founding of the repubUc 
the Romans were at war with the ^E'qui-ans, who had 
a large army in a field near Alba Longa, which is not 
far from Rome. A Roman army was sent against 
them, but it was defeated and almost surrounded by 
the enemy. Five men escaped and hurried to Rome 
with the dreadful news. What could be done? If 
the Roman army were destroyed the city would be at 
the mercy of the invaders. 

On the banks of the Tiber there lived a farmer 
named Cincinnatus, and the eyes of all turned to him 
as the deliverer of the city. Why, we do not know. 
Perhaps he had been a conqueror in formxr wars; but 
the legend does not say. Messengers were sent to 
tell him of the peril of the city and that he had been 
appointed dictator. 

Cincinnatus was in his field plowing when the 
messengers came. He accepted the great trust and 
hurried to Rome to raise an army. He ordered all 
private business to stop and commanded every man 
that could bear arms to join him. Within a day or 
two he was marching with a large army in the direction 
of Alba Longa. He met the ^Equians, defeated them, 
and captured their entire army. He then forced the 
captured ^rmy to pass under the yoke. This was 
made of three spears^ — two fastened upright in the 



CINCINNATUS 



75 



ground and a third across them at the top. Each 
captured soldier had to creep under this^ yoke to show 
that he was subdued. And to-day we have the Enghsh 
word ''subjugation/' from two Latin words which 
mean ''under the yoke." 




Cincinnatus receiving the Dictatorship 

The Roman people were wild with joy at the victory 
and they showered their blessings on the man who had 
saved them. Sixteen days after Cincinnatus had 
left his plow he had laid aside his great power and was 
again back on his farm. He had saved the city, and 
his name, like the name of Horatius, became a house- 
hold word in Rome. 

George Washington has been called the Cincinnatus 
of the West, After our Revolutionary War was over 



76 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



a company of officers was formed and called the 
Cincinnati, and a newly founded city in Ohio was 
given the same name. 



THE FIRST PUNIC WAR AND REGULUS 

For four hundred years after the founding of Rome 
there was almost constant war between that city and 
the various nations that occupied Italy. Some of 
these wars were fierce and bloody and the Romans 
were often defeated, but in the end they won every- 
where, and all Italy came under Roman government. 
But this is not the whole story. After becoming 
master of Italy, Rome extended her 
conquests to all the countries border- 
ing on the Mediterranean. There 
were North Africa, Spain and France, 
Mac'e-do'ni-a and Greece, Asia Minor, 
Pares-tine, and even England — all of 
which became parts of the mighty 
Roman Empire. Let us notice here 
one of these conquests, that which 
came through the Pu'nic wars. 

Punic means Carth'a-gin'i-an, and 
these wars were with Car'thage, a 
city of North Africa. Carthage had 
been founded by the Phce-ni'cians 
about a hundred years before the 
founding of Rome. It was a great 
city ; it governed the island of Sar-din'i-a, a large part 
of Sic'i-ly, and the coast of North Africa for a thousand 
miles; it had a prosperous trade with the countries 




Roman Column in 
honor of first 
naval Victory- 
over Carthage 



THE FIRST PUNIC WAR AND REGULUS 77 

around the Mediterranean and it had even sent ships 
through the Strait of Gi-braFtar. 

It was not long before Rome and Carthage came 
into conflict. Each was jealous of the growing power 
of the other and the mastery of the Mediterranean 
was determined in a series of wars that covered more 
than a hundred years. 

The first of the Punic wars began in 264 B.C. and 
continued twenty-four years. In one respect Carthage 
had a great advantage over Rome. She had powerful 
ships and a large number of them. Rome had no 
navy and she clearly saw that without one she could 
not hope for success against her great rival. The 
Romans thereupon set to work building a navy. Tak- 
ing as a model an old Carthaginian vessel wrecked on 
the Itahan shore, they worked day and night, and in 
sixty days, it is said, had finished a hundred warships. 
These were not such war vessels as we now have; but 
they were very good for those days, and from this 
time on Rome was able to meet her great enemy on 
the sea as well as on the land. 

The most famous story of the First Punic War was 
that about Reg'u-lus. The Romans carried the war 
into Africa and sent Regulus with an army to that 
country. The army was defeated and Regulus taken 
prisoner. The Carthaginians desired peace and they 
sent Regulus back to Rome on his promise that, if 
he did not succeed in making terms of peace, he would 
return to Carthage. He went to Rome, and instead of 
trying to make peace, he urged the Romans to con- 
tinue the war. They did, and Regulus returned to 



78 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



Carthage, as he had promised to do, and it is said 
that he was put to death. 



THE SECOND PUNIC WAR AND HANNIBAL 

The story of the Second Punic War centers around 
one great man — Hannibal. He was the son of a great 
Carthaginian commander named Ha-mil'car, who had 
fought in the First Punic War. 

When Hannibal was a boy of nine years his father 
had him take a most solemn oath 
that he would spend his life fight- 
ing Rome. A little later the 
father was killed in a battle in 
Spain, and as the boy grew to man- 
hood he prepared to fulfil the oath, 
and later he proved himself the 
greatest commander of ancient 
times. 

While still a young man he 
started out on his life-work. He 
raised a great army and led it from Spain to Italy by 
land, across the Pyr'e-nees and the Alps. This was in 
the year 218 B.C. Five months after leaving Spain 
Hannibal swept down into northern Italy. The Ro- 
mans sent an army against him, but he defeated it 
with great slaughter in the battle of Tre'bi-a. Again, 
at Lake Tras-i-me'ne, Hannibal won a great victory 
over the Roman hosts and there was dismay in the 
City of the Seven Hills. The people feared that the 
great Carthaginian would capture the city and perhaps 
destroy it. 




Hannibal 



THE SECOND PUNIC WAR AND HANNIBAL 79 

At length the Romans found a general who was wise 
enough to meet the enemy. His name was Fa'bi-us. 
Being made dictator with unhmited power, he led 
an army toward the invader. But Fabius avoided a 
battle because he knew that his army could not stand 
before his great enemy. He encamped on the hill, 
where HannibaFs cavalry could not reach him. Hanni- 
bal tried in every way to draw the Roman general into 
battle, but he did not succeed. Fabius followed his 
enemy wherever he went, cut off his food supply, and 
annoyed him wherever he could, but remained just 
out of reach. 

Hannibal grew very tired of such tactics. He 
desired to fight and not to see his army wasted away 
with such annoyance. At length he played a trick on 
Fabius that proved successful. 

The Roman people became very impatient of their 
general. They could not understand why he would 
not fight the enemy. They even accused him of being 
a traitor to his country and on friendly terms with 
Hannibal. At this time Hannibal, who knew of the 
suspicion against Fabius, passed through a country 
where Fabius had a fine estate — a grand mansion, 
a beautiful garden, and broad lands. Now the trick 
Hannibal played was this : he laid waste all the country 
round, except the lands of Fabius. He set guards 
around the property and would not permit a soldier to 
destroy anything. 

What was the result? The Romans now cried out 
fiercely against Fabius. Here was the proof, they said, 
that he was false to his country and that Hannibal 



80 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

was his friend. Fabius was recalled — just what 
Hannibal desired. 

The next year an officer named Var'ro commanded 
the Romans. Then came the greatest battle of the 
war and the greatest disaster that ever befell a Roman 
army. It was the battle of Can'nse. It took place 
near the Au'fi-dus River, in 216 B.C. Varro had a 
Roman army of eighty thousand men, the flower of 
all Italy. He would not follow the tactics of Fabius. 
No, he came out to fight and proposed to do so. 

Hannibal saw his opportunity. He placed his 
weakest soldiers in the center and his strongest, with 
the cavalry, on the flanks or wings. Varro rushed in 
with his whole force and struck at the Carthaginian 
center. It was soon pressed back, as Hannibal knew 
it would be, and his army was in the shape of a half- 
moon, the Romans filling the concave. The Cartha- 
ginians then closed in from both wings and almost 
surrounded the Roman army. 

Then began the most dreadful slaughter. The 
Carthaginian horsemen cut down the Romans by thou- 
sands. At the close of that bloody day fifty thousand 
of Varro's forces lay dead or wounded on the field. 
Twenty thousand were captured and barely ten 
thousand escaped to return to their homes. 

The people, after this awful day at Cannse, began to 
see that Fabius was their true commander. They 
realized that Hannibal was too skilful to be de- 
feated in open battle. He remained many years 
longer in Italy, but never fought a great battle 
after Cannse. Fabius was restored to public favor 



THE SECOND PUNIC WAR AND HANNIBAL 



81 



and to this day his name stands among the great in 
Roman history. 

Hannibal was fifteen years on the soil of Italy. But 
the Romans at last found a way to get rid of him. 
They sent a large army to Africa to threaten Carthage. 
It was led by a strong young com- 
mander named Scip'i-o. The men of 
Carthage had no commander strong 
enough to meet Scipio and they 
called for Hannibal to come home. 
He returned and raised an army 
against the Romans. But his forces 
were inferior and he was defeated in 
the great battle of Za'ma, in the year 
202 B.C. 

Thus ended the Second Punic War, 
and Rome was the victor. Hannibal 
did all he could to build up the 
broken fortunes of his country; but 
a few years later, when the Romans 
demanded that he be sent to them, 
he left his native land and became 
a wanderer. For some years he trav- 
eled from one country to another, 
and at last, fearing that he would 
fall into the hands of his great enemy, 
he killed himself. Thus perished one of the greatest 
commanders in history. 

Scipio, after his great victory at Zama, was called 
Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus. He enjoyed a great triumph when 
he returned to Rome. A Roman triumph was march- 




Scipio Africanus 



82 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

ing through the streets with great pomp, exhibiting 
the spoils of war, amid the shouts and applause of the 
people. 

The Third Punic War came about a half century 
after the Second, and resulted in the utter destruction 
of the city of Carthage. It is said that the Roman 
senator Ca'to closed all his speeches in the Senate, on 
whatever subject, with the words, ^'Carthage must 
be destroyed." 

At length the Roman armies came and laid siege to 
the doomed city. For three years the Carthaginians 
fought with the bravery of despair; but they had to 
yield at last and their beautiful city was totally de- 
stroyed. Not a building was left standing; the people 
who were not slain were driven away or sold into 
slavery, fifty thousand being carried to the slave 
markets of Rome, and the spot on which Carthage 
stood became a scene of ruin. This occurred in the 
year 146 B.C. 

CORNELIA'S JEWELS 

The many wars of the Roman people resulted in 
greatly changing their mode of living. The simple life 
of the old days of Horatius and Cincinnatus had 
passed away. The wars had made some very rich 
and others very poor. The rich absorbed the little 
farms of the poor and extended their estates over vast 
tracts; they built fine houses and laid out beautiful 
gardens and had broad pasture and hunting lands. 

If the rich landowners had employed the poor on 
their great estates, conditions would not have been so 
bad; but they did not. They had all their work done 



CORNELIA'S JEWELS 83 

by slaves, chiefly men captured in the wars. There 
were hundreds, sometimes thousands, of slaves on a 
single estate. During the day they worked in the 
fields, chained in gangs and driven by a taskmaster. 
At night they were locked in a dungeon. But after 
all, the slave had a place to stay and enough to eat. 
Not so with the poor farmers. They had lost 




Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi 

From the painting by J. Jarnelo 

their homes, often through fighting for their country, 
and they had no place to go and no way of making a 
living. Many of them flocked to the city and became 
paupers. There were no large factories, as in modern 
cities, to furnish employment for laborers. Others 
wandered about the country with their wives and 
children and obtained a living as best they could. 



84 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The greedy landowners who had taken their farms 
cared nothing about their sufferings. Now we come 
to the story of Cor-nelia and her jewels. 

Cornelia was the daughter of Scipio, the great 
general who had defeated Hannibal at Zama. She 
was of a noble family, but she married a man of the 
common people whose name was Grac'chus. He was 
a person of high character and honor. But it was not 
many years before Gracchus died and Cornelia was 
left a widow with two little boys. 

She was still young and beautiful and several promi- 
nent men, one of whom was a king, sought her hand in 
marriage. But she decided that she would not marry 
again and that she would devote her time to training 
her two boys. The name of the elder was Ti-be'ri-us, 
and the younger, Ca'ius. Later they were called the 
Grac'chi, as the word Gracchi is the plural of Gracchus. 

One day some rich matrons of Rome were visiting 
Cornelia and were displaying their jewels ^ golden 
ornaments and precious stones. ^' Where are your 
jewels?" asked one of the women. The proud mother 
pointed to her two little boys and answered, ^' These 
are my jewels." 

The brothers grew to manhood and were known for 
their nobleness of character. Tiberius, the elder 
brother, served in the wars of Africa and Spain. As 
he passed through the districts outside of Rome his 
heart was moved with pity at the great numbers 
of poor farmers wandering aimlessly, having been 
driven from their homes by the rich landowners. 

Tiberius was so stirred by these conditions, that 



CORNELIA'S JEWELS 85 

when he returned from the war he began an attack 
against the Roman land system. ''The poor have 
fought to maintain the luxury of the rich/' he said, 
''while they do not possess a clod of earth that they 
may call their own." He told the people that the 
wild beasts had their dens and caves, but the men who 
had offered their lives for their country had to wander 
about homeless with their wives and little ones. 

There was an ancient law, two hundred years old, 
which forbade anyone to own a large estate; but this 
law was disregarded by the rich and it was not enforced. 
Tiberius set about to revive this law. Cornelia urged 
her sons to do something great for their country. 
''I am known," she said, ''as the daughter of Scipio, 
but I wish to be remembered as the mother of the 
Gracchi." 

The opportunity soon came. Tiberius was elected 
Tribune of the people, and he declared that the old law 
in regard to the division of the land should be revived 
or a new one passed. But the senators, most of whom 
were holders of large estates, objected. Tiberius made 
a noble fight and won a victory. The law was passed 
and three commissioners appointed to carry it into 
effect. Tiberius, however, made many bitter enemies 
among the rich, and a little later, on election day, 
when he was a candidate for a second term, a great 
riot occurred. The streets of Rome flowed with blood. 
About three hundred people were killed and among the 
dead was the noble reformer Tiberius. 

When he was slain the people were without a leader. 
His brother Caius was in Spain. On his return he 



86 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




Caius Gracchus 



saw that the laws of his dead brother were not properly 
carried out ; the people were wandering about like sheep 
without a shepherd, and he became their leader. 

Caius was the most eloquent man in Rome. Great 
crowds gathered to hear him speak 
in the Forum and thousands were 
won by his voice as he pleaded the 
cause of the downtrodden poor. 
Like his brother he was elected 
Tribune (123 B.C.) and he brought 
about some good laws, such as the 
law to sell corn to the poor from 
the public stores at a very low 
price. He restored the land laws 
of Tiberius and sought to build 
colonies of the poor outside the city. 

But he was hated by the rich, as his brother had been. 
At length his enemies made an attack and three 
thousand people were slain. Caius fled across the 
Tiber and there, rather than fall into the hands of his 
enemies alive, he ordered a faithful slave to kill him 
with the sword. The slave did as he was commanded 
and then he slew himself. Thus perished the second 
of the noble sons of a noble mother. 

Some of the laws of the Gracchi continued in force; 
but for the most part Rome was governed by the rich 
and the poor were severely oppressed. As long as she 
lived the mother of Tiberius and Caius mourned the 
death of her brave sons ; and while she was still living a 
statue of her was set up in Rome and on it was this 
inscription: '' Cornelia, the Mother of the Gracchi." 



' CHAPTER V 

C^SAR AND THE WeST 




Marcus Tullius Cicero 

Bust in Vatican Museum 



HE greatest of all the Romans 
that ever lived was Ju'lius 
Cse'sar, and his name is per- 
haps the most famous in his- 
tory. Born in the year 100 
B.C., descended from a noble 
family, Caesar entered public 
life at an early age and rose 
from one position to another 
until he became master of 
Rome, and that meant master 
of the world. 



EARLY LIFE OF CAESAR 

As a youth Caesar was gay and thoughtless and a 
leader of fashion among the young nobles. He gave 
little promise of future greatness. But now and then he 
showed the metal of which he was made. At one time he 
was captured by the pirates of the Mediterranean, who 
held him for ransom. They demanded twenty talents 
for his release. A talent was worth more than a thou- 
sand dollars. Caesar scornfully told the pirates that 
they did not know the value of their captive, and that he 

87 



88 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



would pay them fifty talents. His friends paid the 
ransom a few months later. During the time that 
Caesar was with the pirates he entered into their games 
and made himself agreeable ; but he told them that the 
time would come when he would capture and hang 
them. And he kept his word. 

It is said that at one time, when Caesar was about 
thirty years of age, he stood be- 
fore a statue of Alexander the 
Great, and he burst into tears, 
saying again and again, "At my 
age he had conquered the world, 
and as yet I have done nothing." 
Let us now take a view of the 
wonderful career of this Roman. 
For many years after the death 
of Caius Gracchus the rich gov- 
erned the countr}^ and the poor 
were trampled in the dust. 
From time to time leaders arose, 
but they thought more of their 
own selfish interests than of the 
welfare of their country and 
there was great disorder in 
Rome. Among the leaders were 
Mar'i-us and Sulla, both great commanders, who fought 
each other until the government was almost ruined. 

At length there were three men who gained control 
of the government, and they were called the Trium- 
virate, which means ''the three men." They were 
Pom'pey, a famous warrior known as Pompey the 




Caius Julius Caesar 

National Museum, Naples 



TWO GREAT ROMANS 89 

Great; Cras'sus, a man of boundless wealth; and 
Caesar, who was very popular with the masses. Caesar 
was soon afterward elected consul, and he had a law 
passed to distribute public lands among the poor, 
similar to the law of Tiberius. The senate, composed 
of rich men and nobles, bitterly opposed Caesar and 
looked with alarm on his growing popularity. He had 
kept every promise made to the people and had won 
in every contest with his enemies. 

At the close of his consulship Caesar became governor 
of Gaul for a term of five years. What was then called 
Gaul is now France. It included also what is now 
Switzerland and Belgium. 

Over all this vast province Caesar had full control, 
and here at last was his opportunity to show his great 
power as a commander of armies. He had won a few 
victories in Spain, but his new province was far more 
difficult to subdue. The Gauls were divided into many 
warlike tribes. They had been for centuries a terror 
to Rom^e. At one time they had captured and burned 
the City of the Seven Hills and never had the Romans 
been able to conquer them. 

TWO GREAT ROMANS 

Before following Caesar into Gaul let us notice two 
other statesmen of this time. One was Cic'er-o, the 
famous orator, and the other was Ca'to, who was 
noted for honesty in public life in an age when few 
honest men could be found. Cato was a great-grandson 
of that Cato who always closed his speeches in the 
senate with the words, ^'Carthage must be destroyed." 



90 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The younger Cato was a friend of Cicero and both 
were among the best men of their time. One day, as 
Cato was walking in a pubUc park with a friend admir- 
ing the statues of pubhc men, the friend said to him, 
''Cato, why is not your statue here among the rest?" 
And he answered, ''I had rather hear you ask that 
question than hear someone ask, Why is it here?" 

The greatest service Cicero rendered his country 
was when he exposed a band of conspirators led by an 
evil man named Cat'i-line. Cicero was consul when 
he discovered the plot. It was in the year 63 B.C., 
the same year in which Pompey captured Jerusa- 
lem, the holy city of the Jews, and made Palestine a 
Roman province. 

Catiline had a great many followers among the 
wicked men. Their intention was to assassinate the 
consuls and many other public officers, to set fire to 
the city of Rome in a hundred places, and to overturn 
the government. Cicero had a secret way of finding 
out the entire working of the plot, and in several 
powerful speeches in the senate he exposed the whole 
scheme. These speeches are known as Cicero's Ora- 
tions and they are still read in our schools. 

Catiline, who was a senator, sat and listened to Cicero's 
fearful charges against him. At length he rose and 
rushed from the senate chamber. That night he fled 
from the city and joined his armed forces across the 
Tiber. He left instructions wdth his fellow conspira- 
tors in the city to assassinate Cicero if possible and to 
be ready to apply the torch to Rome as soon as he 
should appear before the walls of the city with his 



C^SAR AND THE GAULS 91 

troops. But Cicero had spies watching every move- 
ment the plotters made, and it was not long before 
several of them were arrested and put to death as public 
enemies. Catiline perished a little later at the head 
of his troops fighting against a Roman army. 

Cicero had done a noble service for his country. No 
doubt he saved the city from a dreadful calamity. 
Cato hailed him with the title '' Father of his Country.'^ 
But a few years later, when one of his enemies came 
into power, Cicero was banished from Rome because, 
it was said, he had put the conspirators to death in an 
unlawful way. However, after sixteen months in 
exile he was recalled, and as he was returning to Rome 
crowds of people greeted him with cheers and shouts 
of welcome. Cicero's later years were spent chiefly in 
writing books, which still exist, and are among the 
finest specimens of literature that have come to us 
from the ancient world. 

CAESAR AND THE GAULS 

In the year 58 B.C. Caesar with an army entered the 
province of Gaul and for six or seven years he waged 
war upon the inhabitants. Caesar had more than one 
object in conquering the Gauls; he wished to reduce 
the country to a Roman province, and, it must be 
added, he wished to make a great name for himself 
and to become the leading man in Rome. In both 
he was successful. He wrote a history of his cam- 
paigns in Gaul. This is called ''Caesar's Commen- 
taries," and it is one of the first Latin books read in our 
high schools. 



92 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




Caesar had wonderful power in attaching his soldiers 
to him. He was dignified, but he was gracious and 
never cruel. At his command his men were ready 
to face death anywhere, so devoted 
were they. And even the Gauls whom 
he conquered, many of them, were 
won to his standard. He bestowed 
offices on the leaders and induced many 
of the soldiers to join his own army. 
Among the first of the results of this 
war with Gaul was the turning back of 
the Hel-ve'tians. These people lived 
among the Swiss Alps, and being op- 
pressed by their neighbors, they de- 
cided to migrate in a body to western 
Gaul, perhaps to the shore of the great 
ocean of which they had heard. It 
was not unusual in those days for whole nations or 
tribes to move from one country to another. 

Caesar gives the number of Helvetians as 368,000, 
nearly a hundred thousand of whom were men bearing 
arms. Having burned their towns, villages, and homes, 
they set out. Caesar met them on the banks of the 
Rhone River, near Lake Geneva, and told them they 
must turn back. They refused and war followed. 
More than two-thirds of the Helvetians were slain or 
lost and the remainder returned to the ruined homes 
which they had left. 

Soon after these events the Roman general had a 
similar experience with the Germans. Great numbers 
of them, led by Ar-i-o-vis'tus, were swarming across 



A captive Gaul 



CiESAR AND THE GAULS 93 

the Rhine into northern Gaul. The people in this 
part of Gaul were friendly to the Romans and they 
appealed to Caesar for protection from the barbarians. 
Caesar called on Ariovistus to cease bringing over 
his tribes, but the German king made a bold answer. 
''My warriors have never been beaten," he declared, 
and he added that they were thoroughly trained and 
had not slept under a roof for fourteen years. 

Now occurred almost a panic in the Roman army. 
Officers and men were filled with fear at the thought 
of entering the dark German forests and of fighting 
with the fierce, unconquered tribes of barbarians. 
Caesar called a great council of war, and he addressed 
its members. His words inspired his army with his 
own undaunted courage. The cheers of his troops at 
the close of his speech assured him that there would 
be no further hesitation. 

Soon after this a terrible battle was fought between 
Caesar and Ariovistus, resulting in a great victory for 
the Romans. The German king, with the remnant of 
his army, escaped across the Rhine, and the invasions 
of Gaul for the time were at an end. 

But the Gauls had no sooner been delivered from the 
Germans than they became tired of the Romans and 
rose against them. Caesar therefore spent several 
years in almost constant warfare. In 55 b.c. he made 
an invasion of Britain, but remained only a few weeks. 
The next year he again made a voyage to Britain, 
remaining several months and winning a few shght 
battles. On the promise of tribute he returned to the 
continent; but the tribute was probably never paid, 



94 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




THE STORY OF VERCINGETORIX 95 

and more than a hundred years passed before Britain 
became in fact a Roman possession. 

In his GalUc wars Caesar displayed wonderful skill 
as a commander, but now and then he had serious draw- 
backs. At one time one of his legions was destroyed, 
and another, under the command of Quintus Cicero, a 
brother of the great Roman orator, was penned up in a 
town with sixty thousand armed Gauls surrounding it. 
Caesar, who was far away, hearing of the condition of 
Cicero and his army, sent a horseman with a despatch. 
It was written in Greek, so that the enemy could 
not read it, should it fall into their hands. The mes- 
senger was instructed to fasten the paper to a javelin 
and shoot it into the camp. This he did, but the 
javelin struck into a tower and was not noticed for 
two days. When at length it was found it was brought 
to Cicero. He read it — only three words: ^^ Courage, 
help approaches." 

This gave the men renewed courage. A few days 
later Caesar arrived atid rescued the besieged men. 
Nine out of every ten of them had been killed or 
wounded. 

THE STORY OF VERCINGETORIX 

The greatest leader that ever rose among the early 
Gauls was Ver'cin-get'o-rix. What his real name was 
we do not know. The long name by which he is known 
must have been given him after he became a famous 
warrior, for the word means ''The Great Chief of the 
Brave." 

After Caesar had been in Gaul for six years and had 
the whole country under his control, he was astonished 



96 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

to learn that great numbers of the Gauls had risen 
against the Romans. Their leader was Vercingetorix, 
a man tall and strong, with a proud, soldier-like bearing, 
and with long, flowing light hair. He believed that the 
Gauls should be independent of the Romans and he 
offered to lead them in a war for independence. He 
called on the tribes from the Alps to the sea to rally 




German Bodyguard of a Roman Emperor 

Detail from column of Trajaa 

in a mighty effort to throw off the Roman yoke. The 
men came in uncounted thousands. 

Caesar hastened to gather his army and begin a new 
campaign against the Gauls. He found in their leader 
the ablest foe he had ever met in battle. But as the 
Roman army was so much better trained they won in 
most of the contests though there were heavy losses 
on both sides. 

At last the brave Gallic commander found refuge in 
the town of A-le'si-a, situated on the flat top of a steep 
hill. It was one of the strongest fortresses in Gaul. 
But Caesar's army soon surrounded the city and began 
a siege. He dug a deep ditch and built a high rampart. 



THE STORY OF VERCINGETORIX 97 

Meantime a great army of Gauls gathered from the 
country round and attacked the Romans in the rear. 
But they had no strong commander and the Romans 
defeated them. 

Finally there was a terrible battle in which the Gauls 
attacked the Romans from within the city and from 
without. Again the Romans were successful and the 
Gauls were utterly defeated. 

Vercingetorix saw that all was lost. This brave and 
noble man had one more duty to perform. He would 
sacrifice him.self to save his people. Knowing that 
the city could hold out no longer, he said to his officers, 
'^I did not undertake this war to raise my fortune, but 
to save the common liberty. Put me to death to 
satisfy the Romans, or give me up alive." 

A little later the gates of the town were opened. A 
lone horseman rode forth on a splendid war steed. He 
wore his rich and shining armor. Galloping up to the 
tribunal where Caesar sat he circled round it, then 
leaped from his horse and without uttering a word, but 
with a proud, unconquered look, he cast his helmet and 
his sword at the feet of the great Roman commander. 
It was Vercingetorix. He thus offered his life for the 
people in whose behalf he had fought. For six years 
he was kept in captivity, when he adorned a triumph 
through the streets of Rome, after which he was cruelly 
put to death. 

After one more campaign in the northeast Gaul was 
completely conquered at last and Caesar was hailed 
as the greatest commander in the world. What will 
be the next scene in the great Roman drama? 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



CROSSING THE RUBICON 




The Ru'bi-con is a very small river in northeastern 
Italy flowing into the A'dri-at'ic Sea. But it became 
famous in history. 

We have noticed that three men — Csesar, Pom'pey, 
and Crassus — formed a triumvi- 
rate and governed Rome. But 
Crassus went to the East to fight 
the Par'thi-ans and was slain. 
Csesar went into Gaul, as we have 
seen, and as the fame of his con- 
quests reached Rome the people 
were loud in their praise. Pom- 
pey became jealous, and so did 
the members of the senate. 

Csesar was certainly a wonder- 
ful man. He was of medium size, 
had a pale complexion, and he 
was not robust in health. Many 
supposed that a hard campaign or two would end his 
career. But they were astonished at the reports of his 
actions amid the forests and mountains of the North. 
Often he fared no better than his men. He swam rapid 
rivers and climbed rugged mountains in midwinter. 
He shared the hardships of camp life w^ith his soldiers. 
He knew the smallest details about his army and could 
call thousands of his men by name. He often dictated 
four or five letters at a time to as many secretaries. 

For many years Pompey had been considered the 
greatest man in Rome. At one time he boasted that 



German horsemen fight- 
ing Caesar's legions 

Detail from column of An- 



CROSSING THE RUBICON 99 

he could stamp his foot and fill all Italy with armed 
soldiers. But now it was clear that the fame of Caesar 
was eclipsing his own, and Pompey was greatly dis- 
turbed. Caesar had been appointed ruler of Gaul for 
a second term of five years. This was now about to 
expire and he expected to be chosen consul when he 
returned to Rome. His territory extended to the 
Rubicon River, but south of it he dared not come 
without the consent of the senate. The senate called 
on him to disband his army before returning to Rome. 
Caesar answered that he would if Pompey would dis- 
band his, but the latter refused. 

Now there was trouble for Caesar. He had carried 
the Roman Eagles to the far North and had deserved 
the gratitude of the nation. The people and his army 
were devoted to him, but the senate was filled with his 
enemies, who were seeking to destroy him, and he knew 
that if he entered the city without an army to protect 
him he would fall into their hands. One senator had 
said that he should be arrested as soon as he became 
a private citizen. At length the senate declared, ''If 
Caesar does not dismiss his army by a certain time he 
shall be considered an enemy to the state." 

But two ways were left to Caesar — to give himself 
into the hands of his enemies, or to cross the Rubicon 
and march with his army upon Rome. It is said that 
he hesitated long; that he consulted his army and 
they declared that they would follow wherever he chose 
to lead them. He decided to march upon Rome 
(49 B.C.), but on reaching the boundary line, the little 
Rubicon, again he hesitated. But at length he plunged 




100 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

his horse into the stream, exclaiming, ''The die is cast," 
and Caesar marched upon the seven-hilled city, unbid- 
den, with his army. Since then, when some great 
decision is to be made, it is called crossing the Rubicon. 
As Caesar approached there was reason for confusion 
in Rome. Pompey did not feel 
able to meet this great general and 
he fled from the city and escaped to 
Greece. Many of the senators and 
their friends fled also, and Caesar 
found himself master of Rome and 
all Italy, almost without blood- 
shed. 

After making an excursion into 
Julius Cccsar Spain and defeating an army of 

Pompey stationed there, Caesar 
returned and went to Greece in pursuit of the enemy 
himself. At the battle of Phar-sa'lus Pompey was de- 
feated and he fled to Egypt, where he was murdered on 
landing, by order of King PtoFe-my, who expected by 
this act to win the favor of Caesar. Thus perished the 
second greatest commander that Rome ever produced. 
When Caesar reached Egypt and heard of the 
death of Pompey, it is said that he burst into tears. 
Ptolemy had failed to win the favor of the Roman 
commander, and as there was a dispute between Ptolemy 
and his sister Cle'o-pa'tra as to which should occupy 
the Egyptian throne, Caesar decided for Cleopatra, and 
placing her on the throne, protected her with Roman 
legions. 

Returning to Italy by way of Asia Minor, Caesar 



LAST YEARS AND DEATH OF C^SAR 101 

put down a revolt in Pontus and described his victory 
in three famous words, ''Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I 
saw, I conquered). After another successful campaign 
in Africa and one in Spain, Julius Csesar stood forth 
the undisputed master of the Roman world with all 
its vast possessions — Greece and Asia Minor, Pales- 
tine, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and the islands of the 
sea. What will he do with his great power? 

LAST YEARS AND DEATH OF CAESAR 

The greatest honors were heaped on Caesar after his 
final victories. He was made dictator for ten years, 
with almost the power of an absolute monarch. Four 
triumphs were celebrated in honor of his victories and 
forty days of thanksgiving were decreed by the new 
senate. Temples and statues were dedicated in his 
honor and one of the months was renamed July, after 
his name Julius. 

The burning question among Caesar's former enemies 
was. How will he treat us? Other conquerors had 
destroyed their enemies after peace was restored. 
But Caesar had no revenge in his heart. He gave 
office to man who had fought against him in Pompey's 
army. In his triumphs, when conquered enemies 
were led captive through the streets, not a Roman 
citizen was among them. On the other hand, Caesar 
gave a great feast to the people, using twenty-two 
thousand tables. Many who had fought against him 
were among the guests. He furnished games in which 
there were wrestling and dancing and chariot races. 
Four hundred lions were slain in the arena of the 



102 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

amphitheater to entertain the multitudes. Caesar 
pardoned those who had fought against him. He had 
been severe in war, but he was kind and generous in 
peace. 

For a hundred years the government of Rome had 
been in the hands of a few warring factions. When 
Caesar came into power he set about making the 
government better and breaking down the barrier 
between the rich and the poor. Many thousands of 
the Roman poor he sent out to the provinces, fur- 
nishing them with small farms on which they could 
earn a living. 

Before this time the governors of the provinces had 
robbed the people to enrich themselves. Caesar 
changed the system and put a decided check on the 
practise of robbing the people. He reformed the 
calendar and it has since remained, with little change, 
as he left it. Many other things this great ruler 
planned to do for the welfare of his country, but he 
did not live to carry them out. 

His enemies formed a conspiracy to kill him. More 
than fifty men were in the plot, and many of them 
he believed to be his friends. Some of them were op- 
posed to Caesar because they were jealous of his great 
power; others sincerely believed that they were doing 
the state a service by preventing it from becoming a 
monarchy. The leader of the conspirators was Cas'- 
si-us, who had been a commander in the army of 
Crassus. Cassius won over Brutus, one of Caesar's 
best friends, who believed that the liberties of the people 
were in danger. 




THE EMPIRE AND THE CITY 103 

It was the Ides of March (March 15th) in the year 
44 B.C. Caesar had been warned that there was danger, 
but he would take no heed. When he entered the senate 
chamber the conspirators surrounded him and began 
to strike him with their daggers. At 
first he tried to defend himself; but 
when he saw Brutus among the as- 
sassins, with upraised knife, he cried 
bitterly, ''And you, Brutus! Then 
falls Caesar." And he threw his man- 
tle over his head and fell dead, with 
twenty-three gushing wounds, at the 
foot of Pompey's statue. 

Great was the confusion in Rome 
when the murder of Csesar became 
known. Soon there was civil war, and most of the con- 
spirators lost their lives. These who expected to save 
the republic by killing Caesar were sadly mistaken. It 
was more than five hundred years since the kings had 
been driven out and Rome had become a republic ; but 
soon after the death of Caesar the republic was at an 
end, and from this time Rome was an empire. 

THE EMPIRE AND THE CITY 

Julius Caesar had made Rome a monarchy by 
gathering up the powers of government into his own 
hands. But it was not called a monarchy for about 
fifteen years after his death. The first ruler to be called 
emperor was Oc-taVi-us Caesar, or Au-gus'tus, as he 
came to be called. He was a grandnephew of Julius 
Caesar. From the time of Augustus, Rome was an 



104 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



empire for nearly five hundred years, when the empire 

fell to pieces and was no more. 

The empire, at the end of the reign of Augustus, 

extended from the 
Rhine and the Dan'- 
ube rivers on the north 
to the Sa-ha'ra Desert 
on the south, and from 
the Atlantic Ocean al- 
most to the Eu-phra'- 
tes River. 

Let us take a nearer 
view of this wonderful 
city that ^'sat on her 
seven hills and ruled 
the world"; but we 
can mention only a 
few of the many inter- 
esting points. 

One of the seven fa- 
mous hills of Rome 
was the Cap'i-to-line, 
near a bend in the 
Tiber. On one of its 




Augustus 



two summits was built the temple of Jupiter and on 
the other the citadel. The temple was built by the 
Tarquin kings and for more than four centuries it 
was the most sacred building in Rome. In 83 B.C. it 
was set afire by some unknown person. The temple was 
soon rebuilt and several times during the following 
centuries it was destroyed and rebuilt. Once a year 



THE EMPIRE AND THE CITY 105 

the people held a great festival and marched up the 
hill to the temple. A priest then drove a nail into 
the wall, and thus the record of the years was kept. 

This temple was called the Capitol, from the Latin 
word caput, which means " the head." In a chest in the 
Capitol were kept the three mysterious manuscripts 
known as the sib'yl-hne books. A prophetess, or sibyl, 
who lived in a cave, came to one of the Roman kings 
and offered him nine books containing, as she said, 
prophecies about Rome. But her price was so high 
that he refused to buy. She departed and burned 
three of the books. Returning to the king, she 
offered him the six remaining books for the same 
price that she had asked for the nine. 

Again the king sent her away, and still again she 
came. This time she had but three books, and she 
asked the same for the three that she had at first 
asked for nine. The king hesitated no longer. He 
purchased the three books. They were placed in a 
stone chest and guarded day and night. None but 
the priests were permitted to look into them. 

One of the most interesting spots in Rome was the 
Forum. This was at first a marshy valley nearly 
enclosed by three of the seven hills — the Capitoline, 
the Palatine, and the Es'qui-line. It was here that 
Romulus and the king of the Sabines met and made 
peace between the two peoples. For many years the 
Forum was a market-place where the people met to 
buy and sell their wares and to talk over the latest 
news. At length the butchers' stalls gave place to 
grand and stately buildings and beautiful statues. 



106 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



The most interesting thing perhaps in connection 
with the Forum was the temple of Vesta. Vesta was 
the goddess of the hearth and home, and from her name 
We have the word 'Vestibule.'' In the temple were six 
young women who kept burning the sacred fire day and 
night for years and even for centuries. They were 
called the Vestal Virgins. 




Vergil reading to Augustus 

From painting by Jalabut 

In architecture the ideas of the Romans were at first 
very crude; but in the course of centuries they learned 
a great deal from their neighbors, especially from the 
E-trus'cans, who dwelt on the other side of the Tiber, 
and from the Greeks. 

Once in five years the people assembled on the 
Campus Mar'tius (the plain of Mars), a large open 
valley outside the city, lying between the hills and the 
Tiber. Here the census was taken and a sacrifice of a 



THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY 107 

pig, a sheep, and an ox was made for the purification of 
the people. The Campus Martius was also used for the 
marshaling of armies, and sometimes the display was 
magnificent indeed. 

The Romans loved entertainment. They had great 
amphitheaters which would accommodate many thou- 
sands of people. In these they gathered in vast num- 
bers to see the shows, and their shows too often were 
not of a refining nature. Not only were animals slain 
for the amusement of the people, but human beings 
also. The men who fought were called gladiators, 
from gladius, a sword. These gladiators were thor- 
oughly trained in the use of the sword. They met 
one another in the open arena of the amphitheater 
and fought to the death, the great crowds looking on. 

The greatest of the Roman amphitheaters was 
known as the CoFos-se^um. This was erected at a 
later date than that which we are here describing. 
It was built to seat fifty thousand people, with standing 
room for twenty thousand more. Its structure wascf 
stone, with seats of marble. Its walls were 157 feet in 
height. 

THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY 

The Roman people excelled in war and in government, 
and thus they became the conquerors of other nations. 
But they were at first a coarse and crude people, and 
as time passed they made conquests of peoples who 
were more cultivated and refined than themselves. 
The Greeks were far ahead of the Romans in 
art, sculpture, and literature. The Romans were not 
too proud to acknowledge this, and when they con- 



108 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



quered the Greeks they borrowed many ideas from them. 
They copied Greek hterature and imitated the Greek 
reUgion. A great many pieces of Greek art and 
sculpture were carried to Rome, and it became fash- 
ionable for the wealthy Romans to employ Greek 
teachers in their families. Thus while Rome conquered 
Greece with the sword, Greece conquered Rome with 
her higher intelligence. 




Detail from Arch of Titus, showing Soldiers carrying the 
Treasures of the Temple of Jerusalem 



Rome thereafter carried Grecian culture and civili- 
zation to Gaul, to England, and to Spain, and these 
nations transplanted the same in later centuries to 
America. But Rome was not only the bearer of 
Grecian culture; she had herself built up the finest 
system of law in the ancient world, and this too was 
carried to other nations and finally to America. 

Now we come to the most important conquest of the 
period. Rome was conquered by Christianity, and 



THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY 109 

this conquest, like that of the Greeks, was without war 
or bloodshed. 

When Christ was born the world was at peace. 
Milton, in his poem on The Nativity, beautifully refers 
to this: 

"Nor war, or battle's sound 
Was heard the world around; 
The idle spear and shield were high up hung. 

The hooked chariot stood 

Unstained with hostile blood, 
The trumpet spake not to the armed throng. 

And Kings sat still with awful eye, 

As if they surely knew their sov'reign Lord was by." 

Rome had conquered Palestine, and at the time of 
the crucifixion of Christ, Pon'tius Pi'late was the 
Roman governor of Ju-de'a. St. Paul was born a 
Roman citizen in a Roman city. 

When Christ's disciples went forth to preach the 
Gospel they had the advantage of protection by the 
Roman laws, which tolerated foreign religions. Paul's 
great missionary journeys to Asia Minor and in Greece 
were all within Roman territory. Often were Paul 
and his associates persecuted, but not by the Romans. 

However, the time came when the laws of Rome 
worked against the Christians. When the Christians 
had greatly increased in numbers and had founded 
churches in Rome itself, there arose opposition from 
the government. In at least two ways, it was said, the 
Christians violated the Roman law — by holding secret 
meetings, which the law forbade, and by refusing to 
award divine honor to the emperor. 



110 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

The Christians came to be a despised sect and often 
they were blamed for what they did not do. In the 
time of Ne'ro, when a large part of the city of Rome 
was burned, the Christians were blamed for setting fire 
to the city, and many of them were put to death. The 
Early Church counted ten distinct persecutions in a 
little over two centuries. Some of the victims were 
sewed up in the skins of animals and thrown to the 
lions in the arena of the amphitheater; others were 
covered from head to foot with pitch and tar and then 
set on fire. But the courage with which they suffered 
death awakened the admiration of the people and made 
many converts. 

As time passed, the Christians became more and more 
numerous. It seemed that the empire was turning 
Christian. And just what Rome needed was a new 
and inspiring religion. The Roman people had lost 
faith in their old gods, and the morals of the nation 
were at a very low ebb. The brutal shows of the 
amphitheater in which men were slain furnished the 
chief delight to the gathered multitudes. The rich 
were degraded by the most extravagant luxury. 
They drove through the streets in lofty chariots fol- 
lowed by troops of slaves. Their horses' harness was 
covered with golden ornaments and precious stones. 
Poor people or children were often crushed by the pon- 
derous chariot wheels; but the haughty owner cared 
nothing for that. The rich women wore ornaments of 
gold and silver so heavy that they could scarcely walk 
without the aid of servants. All this while thousands 
of the poor were homeless and starving. 



THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY 



111 



But the Christian rehgion was gradually gaining, and 
proud Rome, with her extravagance and wretchedness, 
was being conquered at last. At first the converts 
were among the poor, but now and then a rich woman 
would throw off her jewels and become a Christian. 

The most noted of these was Pau'la, a woman of 
great wealth, a descendant of the Scipios and the Grac- 
chi. She cast aside all her luxury; she left her fine 
home and went to the Holy Land. Here in the town of 
Bethlehem, where Christ was born, she spent twenty 
years living on coarse food and wearing coarse clothing, 
working with St. Jerome in translating the Bible into 
Latin. This Latin Bible, which is still used, is called 
the Vulgate. The translation was finished in 405 a.d. 

Persecution only made the Christians stronger and 
more determined. At 
length, after the struggle 
had gone on for three 
centuries, there came an 
emperor named Con'stan- 
tine. He saw that the 
Christian religion was far 
superior to the worship of 
the old Roman gods. At 
length he became a con- 
vert and was baptized into 
the Christian Church. He 
also moved the capital of 
the empire from Rome to 
a city on the Bos'phor-us and called it after his own 
name — Con-stan'ti-no'ple. 




Detail from the Arch of Constan- 
tine. Trajan sacrificing in the 
presence of his army 



112 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

About half a century after the time of Constantine 
(380 A.D.) the Christian religion was made the state 
religion of the empire. Henceforth when Rome car- 
ried her arms and her laws and civilization to other 
lands, she carried the Christian religion with them. 
England and Germany and Gaul all became Chris- 
tianized from Rome, and when these countries settled 
America, the settlers brought with them this same 
religion that had conquered Rome. 

WHAT ROME GAVE TO THE WORLD 

We have noticed that the Roman people, when they 
made their many conquests, borrowed the best things 
from the civilization of the peoples they conquered. 
Thus from Greece and Egypt they received much of 
their religion, until later, when they adopted Christian- 
ity from Palestine. From Greece also they adopted 
their systems of philosophy, much of their art, litera- 
ture, and architecture. They learned much from 
Egypt, from Carthage, and from Etruria. 

Let us notice the two most important contributions of 
Rome to the world to-day. First is her system of gov- 
ernment and law. In this she excelled all other peoples 
of ancient times. The idea of dividing and subdivid- 
ing a country so as to administer the law the better is 
a Roman idea. Almost all modern governments have 
adopted this plan. Our own country is divided into 
states, the states into counties, and the counties into 
townships, and the general idea comes from ancient 
Rome. In the government of the cities also, Rome set 



WHAT ROME GAVE TO THE WORLD 



113 




Eagle of the Roman 
legions 



an example that has been followed by almost all mod- 
ern towns. 

In her system of law Rome 
again excelled all other peoples. 
It is true that her government 
was often corrupt and often des- 
potic ; but her laws were based on 
the principle of j ustice and fairness 
to all classes. The later nations 
of Europe all adopted the greater 
part of the Roman laws, and mod- 
ern nations have done the same 
thing. Roman law is studied to- 
day in every great university in 
Europe and in America. No man 

can pretend to be a statesman, a learned judge, 
or lawyer who has not studied Roman law, and no 
state or nation makes a code of laws for its people that 
is not based on the laws of old Rome. 

The next greatest heritage of the world from Rome 
is the Latin language and literature. The writings of 
the great Roman authors, Caesar, Cicero, Horace, Ovid, 
and others, which we call classics, belong to the world's 
best literature. They form a part of a high school or 
a college education in all civilized countries. 

Still more important is the enriching of the modern 
languages from the Latin. The French language, the 
Spanish, and the ItaUan are largely made up of 
Latin, while a great many English words are from the 
same source. 

Usually the names of our dearest associations, such 



114 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

as mother, father, sister, and brother, are Anglo- 
Saxon; while many of our more difficult terms are 
made up of two or more Latin words. A few examples 
may be interesting. Benevolent means well-wishing 
and is composed of two Latin words: bene, well, and 
velere, to wish. Manufacture is from manus, hand, and 
facere, to make — that is, to make by hand. The word 
came into use before machinery was invented, when 
people actually made things by hand. Aqueduct, a 
waterway, is from aqua, water, and ducere, to lead. 
Transparent comes from two Latin words: trans, across 
or through, and parere, to appear. Locomotive is from 
locus, a place, and movere, to move. Magnanimous 
means noble-minded, from magnus, great, and animus, 
mind. 

Thus we see that many of our words are taken from 
the Latin, the language used by the Romans of olden 
times. 



CHAPTER VI 
Heirs to the Romans 

HE Roman people, who had con- 
quered so many nations, were 
never able to conquer the barba- 
rians of northern Europe, who 
were called Germans. We have 
noticed that Caesar defeated the 
German leader, Ariovistus, in 
battle; but he did not reduce the 
Germans to subjection. On the 
other hand, the time came when 
the Germans conquered the Ro- 
mans. Tac'i-tus, the Latin histo- 
rian, described the Germans as 
having ''stern blue eyes, ruddy hair, their bodies large 
and robust, but powerful only in sudden efforts." 

The German tribes that invaded Italy and Spain 
were called Goths; those that conquered and settled in 
Gaul were called Franks; those that settled in Britain 
were known as Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. But these 
tribes did not remain barbarians. They found the 
Roman civilization better than their own and in part 
adopted it; and they gradually gave up their old reli- 
gion. Let us notice how one of these barbarian 
kings became a Christian. 

115 




A Gaulish chief 



116 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



THE STORY OF CLOVIS 



The fall of the Roman Empire dates from 476 a.d., 
when 0-do-a'cer, a leader of a barbarian tribe, cap- 
tured Rome, overthrew the emperor, and became him- 
self king of Italy. After the year 476 there were no 
more Roman emperors. The empire was broken into 
many parts. One of these parts was Gaul, which was 
now occupied by the Franks, and it came to be called 
France. 
The first great king of the Franks was CloVis. When 
he was a boy of sixteen he fell heir 
to a small kingdom with Tournay 
as its capital. There were several 
other small kingdoms of Franks 
in Gaul at this time, and Clovis 
determined to conquer them and 
unite the Franks under one strong 
government. It was the year 481, 
only six years after the fall of 
Rome, when Clovis became king. 
Clovis was married to a beau- 
tiful young princess named Clo- 
til'da, who was a daughter of the 
king of Burgundy. She was a 
Christian, but her husband was a 
pagan, and he had robbed many 
churches in his campaigns. 

Clotilda begged and urged her husband to become 
a Christian. ^'The gods you w^orship are nothing," 
she said; ''they cannot help themselves nor others. 




Clovis 

From an old print 



THE STORY OF CLOVIS 



117 



The God who should be worshiped is He who by His 
word created the heavens and the earth, who made 
the sun and adorned the sky with stars, who filled 
the water with creeping things, the land with animals, 
and the air with winged creatures." 

The king was not converted, but he permitted their 
infant son to be baptized in the Christian faith. The 
child died, and Clovis believed that it was the baptism 
that caused its death. But when another child was 
born, he permitted it also to be baptized. It too 
became ill and the king, thinking it would die, spoke 
fiercely against the 
queen's beliefs. But 
Clotilda prayed fer- 
vently that the child's 
life be spared, and it 
recovered. After this 
Clovis was much 
more favorable 
toward the Christian 
religion; but he still 
trusted in the old 
gods. 

In the year 496 
King Clovis was en- 
gaged in a dreadful war with the Al-e-mann'i, one of 
the fiercest tribes in Gaul. The battle was going 
against him and a great many of his brave soldiers had 
been slain. He had prayed to his gods in vain. As 
he stood on the battlefield and saw his men falling be- 
fore the enemy, he burst into tears and declared that 




Odin, a god of the early Germans 



118 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

his gods were powerless to aid him. He then called on 
the God of Clotilda and the Christians. He prayed 
for success and made a vow in the midst of the fight 
that if he won, he would become a Christian and be 
baptized. 

Clovis won a great victory that day, and Clotilda 
rejoiced exceedingly when she knew of the vow that 
he had made. Soon afterwards, the king, and three 
thousand of his men were baptized and became 
Christians. 

In the years following, Clovis continued his con- 
quests, and nearly all Gaul came under his dominion. 
He moved his capital to Paris, where he spent the 
remainder of his days. He was the first to unite the 
Franks under one rule, and to this day Clovis is looked 
upon as the founder of the French nation. 

THE STORY OF KING ARTHUR 

We Americans are more interested perhaps in the 
early history of England than in 
that of any other country on the 
other side of the Atlantic, as it 
was England that founded nearly 
all of our colonies. 

Anglo-Saxon drinking horn ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^-^^.^ ^^^^^ ^^^ 
in British Museum i r i p • i 

trol for about four centuries; but 
v/hen the northern barbarians pressed hard on the City 
of the Seven Hills, the Roman armies had to be with- 
drawn from Britain. During those four centuries the 
British people had lost the art of war, and they were 
not able to defend themselves against the barbarian 




THE STORY OF KING ARTHUR 119 

hordes that landed on their shores. The Jutes came 
in 449, led by two brothers, Hen'gist and Hor'sa. The 
Saxons arrived about thirty years later, and the Angles 
still later. When the Angles came, they brought with 
them their women and children, intending to remain. 
It was this tribe that gave its name to the island — 
Angle-Land, or England. Before this, the island was 
known as Britain and its people as Britons. 

The war between these German tribes and the 
Britons was long and fierce. It lasted nearly one 
hundred and fifty years and ended with a complete 
victory for the Germans. Let us notice one inci- 
dent of this long war — the battle of Badon Hill 
and its hero. King Arthur. It is probable that the 
story of Arthur is founded in fact. But a won- 
derful web of legend has been woven around his 
name. 

According to these legends Arthur had twelve brave 
knights who sat with him at a round table, and they 
were called '^The Knights of the Round Table." 
They went forth into various countries seeking adven- 
ture, and their heroic deeds furnish the subjects of 
many stories of the Middle Ages. 

The battle of Badon Hill, probably about the year 
500, was one of the greatest ever fought between the 
Britons and the Saxons. Arthur was king of the 
Britons. On his spirited war-steed he rode among his 
troops and cheered them on to battle. The legend 
tells us that he slew nine hundred and forty of the 
enemy with his own hand. The Britons won the day. 
Many thousands of the Saxons were slain, and it was 



120 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



forty years before they fully recovered from their fear- 
ful defeat at Badon Hill. 

Arthur was the hero of many battles. In the last 
of these he was covered with wounds and was borne 
away from the field by fairy hands to a beautiful 




England and the continent whence came her many invaders 

enchanted island called Avalon. Here he died and 
was buried, but the legend said he would rise again 
and return to deliver the people from their enemies. 

Tennyson's ''Idyls of the King" is based on the 
legends of Arthur. In these lines the poet refers to 
the burial place of the hero, — 



THE STORY OF KING ARTHUR 121 

" To the island- valley of Avilion, 
Where falls not hail, or rain or any snow, 
Nor ever wind blows loudly; but it lies 
Deep-meadowed, happy, fair with orchard lawns, 
And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea." 

Within a century after the German tribes had 
conquered the Britons and had taken possession of 
the land, they became converted to Christianity. 
Augustine, sent by Pope Gregory, landed in England 
in 597 and began to preach the Gospel of Christ. In 
less than half a century nearly the whole country was 
converted and churches rose on all sides. 

'^The present life of man on earth," said an officer 
of the army, ''seems to me like the swift flight of a 
sparrow through the room where you sit at supper in 
winter. While the storms prevail outside, the spar- 
row flies in at one door and out at another; whilst 
it is within it is safe from the wintry storm, but it 
soon vanishes into the dark whence it came. So this 
life of man appears for a short space, but of what went 
before and what is to follow we are ignorant. If 
therefore this new rehgion contains something more 
certain it seems to deserve to be followed." And one 
old pagan priest cried out, ''I have long believed that 
there was nothing in that which we worshiped, because 
the more I sought after truth, the less I found it." 
And this aged priest was the first to destroy the altars 
and temples of the heathen gods. 

THE VIKINGS 

After the conversion of England there was prosperity 
for a long season. But the country was divided into 



122 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

several small kingdoms. Part of the time there were 
seven of these, and after various wars with one another 
they were united into one, under King Egbert, about 
the year 827. This one was called the Hep'tarchy, 
which means seven kingdoms. 

At this time, and even earlier, the English people 
had to contend with a dangerous foe — the Danes. 
Three hundred years had passed since the island had 
been invaded by foreigners, and the people were not 
prepared to defend their country. The Danes and 
Northmen from Scandinavia therefore found them an 
easy prey. 

These hardy seamen of the north, often called 
Vikings, almost lived on the 
water. In their high-prowed 
boats, they traversed all the 
northern seas, defying the roll- 
ing billows and the storm. 
Moreover, they were reckless 
robbers; they had little idea of 
the rights of life and property, and woe to the hapless 
inhabitants of the coasts they ravaged. It was the 
descendants of these same Northmen who, two hundred 
years later, settled Greenland and, led by Leif Ericson, 
became the first Europeans to discover North America. 
At first these daring rovers of the sea ravaged only 
the coasts of Britain. They would swoop down on 
the coast towns during the summer months, rob and 
pillage the inhabitants, and then sail swiftly back 
to their northern home before winter. But at length 
they ascended the rivers and made settlements. The 




ALFRED BECOMES KING 123 

English fought them, but were unable to drive them 
out. Sometimes they made terms with the Danes 
and purchased peace by paying them money. But 
the latter often forgot their agreements and again 
crowded the English from their homes. And when 
Alfred, the grandson of Egbert, became king, the 
Danes occupied a large portion of northern and eastern 
England, and the line between them and the English 
they called the Danelagh. 

ALFRED BECOMES KING 

Alfred, hke David, king of Israel, was the youngest 
and the fairest of the sons of his 
father. Alfred's father was Eth'- 
elwulf, king of Wessex and Kent; a 
large part of the remainder of Eng- 
land was under the control of the 
Danes. The prince was born in 849, 
and being the youngest, it was 
thought that he would never come to a ir , .1. r. . 

^, ^f XT- 1 . 1 Alfred the Great 

the throne. His education was there- 
fore neglected, though he was very eager to learn. The 
story tells us that when Alfred was about twelve years 
old his mother showed him and his brothers a book 
of Anglo-Saxon poetry and said, ''Whichever of you 
will learn this book first shall have it for his own." 
Alfred was delighted at this opportunity to own a 
book. He studied diligently and he won the reward 
over his older brothers. There were no printing- 
presses in those days, and a book printed by hand 
was a rare and costly prize. 




124 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



King Ethelwulf took his young son Alfred with 
him on a pilgrimage to Rome. They stopped for 
some time at Paris, the guests of the king. We can 
imagine what a life-long impression was made on the 
mind of the young English prince by the brilliant 
court of the French king and the wonderful city on 
the Tiber. 

We are told that as a boy Alfred became very skil- 
ful in hunting, riding, and in the use 
of the bow and arrow; but that, as he 
found his body becoming so perfect, he 
prayed that God would give him some 
illness. Soon after this he was afflicted 
with a painful disease. Whether this 
story is true or not we do not know. 
But it is true that Alfred, all through 
the years of his manhood, suffered 
from a disease which the doctors of 
that day did not understand. In spite 

of this, however, he showed wonderful 

Early hand-printed vigor and energy, 
book chained to Alfred had three brothers older than 
^ himself, all of whom wore the crown. 

The eldest died after a reign of two years and the 
second after he had reigned six years. The third was 
Eth'elred, who then succeeded to the crown, and the 
records seem to show that Alfred was associated with 
him in governing the country. 

About this time the invasion by the Danes was at 
its height. A large army of them landed on the coast 
of Kent, near the mouth of the Thames River. It was 




^Si 



ALFRED BECOMES KING . 125 

the year 871. They pushed on into the interior and 
met the EngHsh, led by the royal brothers, near Read- 
ing. After they had fought for a time, the EngUsh 
thought that they had won a victory and were 
preparing to encamp for the night, when the Danes 
suddenly rushed upon them and put them to flight. 
But this did not end the contest. 

A few days after the affair at Reading the two 
armies met at Ashdown, a place in Berkshire, and 
here was fought the decisive battle of the war. The 
men of both sides beheved that on this day would be 
decided the fate of England. Here on the chalk hills, 
one cold night in March, the opposing armies built 
their watch fires in view of each other. On the 
morrow the clash of arms would come. 

Next morning at break of day the hosts of both 
sides were astir. King Ethelred had divided the 
English army into two parts, retaining one himself 
and giving the other to Alfred. The Danes made an 
immediate attack on Alfred's division. This was the 
supreme moment of the young prince's life. If on 
this day he should fail or falter, England would - be 
lost and the barbarians would overrun the whole 
land. But Alfred did not falter. 

''With the rush of a wild boar," said an eye-witness, 
''he dashed up the slope at the head of his men, ar- 
ranging them in a phalanx." There was an old thorn 
tree around which the battle raged. For many hours 
the clash of arms resounded from hill to hill. Alfred 
seemed to be everywhere, cheering his men and striking 
down the enemy with his own hand. 



126 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

All day long the slaughter continued, and toward 
evening a shout was heard from the English lines. 
The Danes were giving way. At length they broke 
and fled; but they left thousands of their men dead 
and dying scattered along the hillsides. Two Danish 
kings had led the pagans; one of them was lying dead 
among his men. 

Some say that King Ethelred received a fatal wound 
in this battle; others, that it was in another a little 
later. It is certain that he died soon after the battle 
of Ashdown. Who should succeed to the throne of 
England? Ethelred left sons; but they were children. 
The times needed a man, a strong, fearless, able man — 
and here he was — Alfred. 




An English Crossbow Man 

From an old print 
THE GREATEST OF THE ENGLISH KINGS 

In the history of England there has been but one 
king to whose name '^The Great" has been attached. 
It was Alfred, who reigned thirty years, from 871 to 



THE GREATEST OF THE ENGLISH KINGS 127 

901. He laid the foundations of the British educa- 
tional S3^stem, the British navy, and the British Empire. 
No man that ever lived deserved more than he to be 
called ^' The Great." 

The Danes were defeated at Ashdown by the great 
skill and prowess of Alfred, but they were not driven 
from the country. The English king was slain, and 
Alfred became monarch at the age of twenty-three. 
The people adored their young king and clung around 
him as their only hope of deliverance from the bar- 
barian hordes of the north. 

Collecting and training his men as best he could, 
Alfred met the invaders on many a bloody field. 
Nine times in one year the armies met and fought, 
and the English were usually successful owing to the 
skill of their royal commander. But the Danes came 
in ever increasing numbers. Bands of them overran 
the fair lands and left a trail of desolation. One 
wTiter of the time said, ''The land was as the Garden 
of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate 
wilderness." 

There were moments when the great soul of Alfred 
was cast down with discouragement. At one time, 
with a few followers, he took refuge in the fens and bogs 
of Somersetshire and suffered for want of food. The 
story is told that he found a refuge in the cabin of a 
herdsman, where he remained several days, the family 
not knowing who he was. One day when the house- 
wife was baking cakes, she asked her guest to watch 
them a few minutes during her absence. The king 
was so busy making bows and arrows that he did not 



128 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

notice when the cakes began to burn. When the 
woman returned she upbraided him saying, ^^Why 
not turn the cakes when you see they are burning? 
You are glad enough to eat them when they are baked." 

It is also related that Alfred disguised himself as a 
wandering minstrel and went into the Danish camp 
to find out the numbers and intentions of the enemy. 
But there is no proof that this story is true. 

The Danish king who contended so long with Alfred 
was named Guth'rum. At length he promised that 
the southern part of England, Alfred's kingdom, should 
be free from the invaders. And for a number of years 
he kept his word. 

No ruler ever labored more faithfully than Alfred 
to raise the standard of education and rehgion among 
his people. He complained that not a person south 
of the Thames River could read Latin, and after he 
was forty years old Alfred learned that language him- 
self so that he could translate Latin literature into 
Anglo-Saxon. Two of the translations that he made 
were Bede's History of the Church and a Guide for 
pastors of the churches. 

King Alfred was himself very religious. He would 
attend church service every day and humbly kneel in 
prayer with his subjects. He would often rise in the 
night and go alone to the church and spend several 
hours in secret prayer. 

Alfred gave his people a code of wise laws. He was 
a student of science and did all he could to encourage 
others to investigate things unknown. He devised 
new plans for building houses; he discovered a way 



THE GREATEST OF THE ENGLISH KINGS 



129 



to tell time by the use of lighted candles of a uni- 
form size; he taught craftsmen about their own craft 
and how to excel in it. He sent to Gaul for learned 
men to come to his kingdom and become the teachers 
of himself and his people. 




King Alfred and his Candle-clock 

In all that we can learn about King Alfred, there is 
no record that he ever did a cruel or mean act. He 
loved his people as his own family. A great historian 
has used these words in describing this prince among 
rulers: "No other man on record has ever so thoroughly 
united all the virtues both of ruler and of the private 



130 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

man. A saint without superstition, a scholar without 
boast, a warrior whose wars were fought in defense 
of his own country, a conqueror whose laurels were 
never stained by cruelty, a prince never cast down by 
adversity, never lifted up to insolence in the hour 
of triumph — there is no other name in history to 
compare with his." 

BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN LIBERTY 

The English people were hundreds of years estab- 
lishing liberty and self-government. They succeeded 
in the end, and their victory was our victory also, for 
in later times, when English people settled in America, 
they brought with them the spirit of liberty and a 
knowledge of self-government. How did they win 
these rights? Let us see. 

It must be remembered that all rulers are not Alfreds. 
If they were, nobody would ever need to strive or 
fight for liberty. England had kings in later years 
who were selfish and tyrannical, caring nothing for 
the welfare of the people. Against them the people 
had to rise and assert their rights. 

The Danes did not cease coming to the island with 
the time of Alfred. They continued to come and to 
make war on the English. But the time came when 
the wars ceased. The Danes were converted to 
Christianity, they made friends with the English, and 
the two peoples then lived in harmony, and all of them 
came to be known as one people. 

A little more than two hundred years after the birth 
of King Alfred, there took place the most memorable 



BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN LIBERTY 



131 



single event in the history of England. It is known 
as the Norman Conquest and its date is 1066. 

The Normans were the people of Normandy, a 
portion of northern France. They had come from 
the north as had the Danes. The word Normans 
means Northmen, and Normandy means the home 
of the Northmen. 

The duke of Normandy was a powerful ruler named 
William. He claimed the 
EngUsh throne on the death 
of the aged king in 1066, 
though the English people 
had chosen Harold as their 
king. William crossed the 
channel with a great fleet 
bearing an army of sixty 
thousand men. 

King Harold hastened 
to gather an army and 
meet the invaders. The 
two great armies met on 
the Senlac Hills not far from 
Hastings, a town in Sussex 
near the channel coast. 
Then occurred, on October 
14th, 1066, the most fa- 
mous of all English battles 

— the battle of Hastings. All day long the two 
great armies contended in bloody strife. A writer of 
the time says, ^^You could hear the sound of many 
trumpets, loud and far-resounding the bray of bugles 




A Norman Invader 



132 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




and horns; and the shocks of the lances, the mighty 
strokes of the maces, and the quick clashings of 
swords." 

Which side would win was uncertain, until evening. 
About sundown King Harold received an arrow in the 
eye, which pierced his brain. He was soon dead, and 
his disheartened army was de- 
feated and scattered. William had 
won the crown of England. He is 
known as Wilham the Conqueror. 
He reigned over England to the 
end of his life, and his sons and 
grandsons after him. 

The Norman kings took away 
from the English people the liber- 
ties they had enjoyed under such 
kings as Alfred. They were now 
ground down with tyranny and 
with heavy taxation. At length there came a king who 
to this day is pronounced the most wicked ruler that 
England ever had. His name was John. He first tried 
to steal his brother Richard's kingdom, while the latter 
was absent on a crusade to the Holy Land. In his 
absence Richard had entrusted his kingdom to John, 
but John proved a traitor to the trust and tried to de- 
fraud his elder brother of his rights. He was humble 
enough, however, when his brother returned. A few 
years later Richard died, in 1199, and John became the 
real king of England. 

But it was not long before he quarreled with the 
Church, with the barons or nobles, and with his people. 



William the Conqueror 

From an ancient effigy 



BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN LIBERTY 



133 



He was heartless and cruel. To keep the barons from 
going agamst him he would take their children, keep 
them in his palace, and threaten to kill them if their 
fathers did not do as he wished, and in several cases 
he carried out his threat. He murdered his brother's 
little son, Prince Arthur, in prison; at least, everyone 
believed that he did it, and it is still so believed. He 
would cast men into prison on some false charge and 
then make them pay a large sum of money to secure 
a trial. 

The people at length decided that they would not 
suffer such cruel actions any longer. Led by a great 
man, Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Can'ter-bu-ry, 
the barons rose in rebellion. At St. Edmundsbury they 
held a meeting and took a solemn oath that if the king 
did not yield to their claims of just government, they 
would withdraw their allegiance. They then armed 
themselves and marched upon London to make their 




^^/^^M-mmm^^/^^Wk:^M, 



William the Conqueror embarking 

From the Bayeux tapestry 



demands. John flew into a rage and refused their 
requests. He fled from London, and was driven from 
place to place. The barons had drawn up a charter, 



134 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



or an agreement, which they were determined he should 
sign. At length they overtook the fleeing monarch 
at a place called Run'ny-mede on the Thames, and 
here he signed the articles. 

The agreement has since been known as the Magna 
Charta (the Latin for Great Charter) . It was signed 
by King John on June 15th, 1215, a great date in 
English history. It provided that 
the people should not be taxed 
without their consent, that no one 
should be imprisoned or banished 
except by the law of the land, 
and that justice should not be 
sold or denied to anyone. 

The king had been forced to 
sign the great charter, and after- 
wards he was so angry at what he 
had done that he rolled on the 
floor and gnawed sticks and 
straws in his fury. He soon de- 
cided, however, that he would not 
keep his promise, and, collecting 
an army, he marched against the barons. They there- 
upon appealed to France for help, and a son of the 
French king crossed the channel with an army. 

There was now civil war, but suddenly, the next 
year, 1216, it came to an end when King John died. 

The Magna Charta is the greatest document of its 
kind in the world. It is to this day the basis of Eng- 
lish liberty, and of ours also, because we Americans 
inherited our liberty from England. 




King John 



THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT 



135 



THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT 

When King John died his son Henry inherited the 
throne of England. He is known in history as 
Henry III. He was only nine years of age at the 
time of his father's death, and a regent was appointed 
to govern until the young king was old enough to rule. 

The people believed that Henry would be a better 
ruler than his father, 
and the time came when 
they had an opportu- 
nity to see. The barons 
or noblemen who had 
forced King John to 
sign the Great Charter 
were powerful in Eng- 
land, and Henry knew 
it. He would call them 
together whenever he 
needed money, and he 
would give them special 
privileges if they would 
grant his request for 
funds. This assembly 
of the barons was called 
a Parliament (from the 
French word meaning 
^'speaking"). 

But the noblemen 
soon learned their lesson, 
a French woman, and King Henry was foolishly spend- 




John's Anger after signing the 
Magna Charta 

The queen of England was 



136 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

ing money on his French friends. The people rebelled 
against the heavy taxes, and there soon came a time 
when Parliament refused his request for funds. Among 
the barons was the Earl Simon de Mont 'fort, Henry's 
brother-in-law. Although the earl was a Frenchman 
by birth, he was determined to have a better govern- 
ment for the English. De Montfort led a party 
against the king, and Henry had reason to tremble. 
^'Am I your prisoner?" he asked. '^No, you are our 
king," was the answer. '^We will obey you if you 
treat us fairly." 

De Montfort then called a Parliament in the king's 
name; and to this assembly were asked, not only the 
bishops and nobles, but other citizens and the country 
gentlemen. This was in 1265, and it marks the begin- 
ning of the lower house of the law-making body in 
England to-day — the House of Commons. It was 
decided that there should be regular meetings of Par- 
liament to discuss the affairs of the government. 

It was not long, however, before wars occurred 
between De Montfort's party and the king's, and in 
the battle of Eves'ham the earl was slain. But an 
old ballad tells us that 

" — by his death Earl Simon hath 
In sooth the victory won." 

And the words of the ballad are true, for it was largely 
through the efforts of Simon de Montfort that the 
people came to have representation in Parliament. 

King Henry had a weak character and he was as 
untruthful as his father had been, but he was not so 



THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT 



137 



mean and selfish. He ruled for more than fifty years 
and at his death his son Edward succeeded to the 
throne. This king is known in history as Edward I. 
He wished to regain a province that the king of France 
had taken. But as he had no money to raise an army, 
he tried to force men into the service. ^'You shall 
either go or be hanged," he said to a certain nobleman. 
^'I will neither go nor yet will I be hanged," was the 
reply. Then what did Edward do? He began to 
tax the people. He 
told them that he 
would allow their 
property to be seized 
unless they would 
give him money. 

But the barons and 
bishops would not 
permit such conduct. 
They declared that 
they would not help 
him nor would they 
give him money un- 
less he would promise 
that no taxes should be collected without the consent 
of Parliament. He agreed to this and he adopted the 
Earl of Montfort's idea by admitting to his Parliament 
not only the nobles and bishops but representatives 
from the towns. About fifty years later Parliament 
was divided into two houses, the upper house and the 
lower house — the House of Lords and the House of 
Commons. 




Robert Bruce 

From the picture at Taymouth, by Jamieson 



138 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



THE WELSH AND THE SCOTS 

Edward was a much stronger king than his father, 
and although he hked to do as he pleased he was a 
just ruler. He ordered that all coins should be made 
round. Before this English pennies were cut into 
halves and quarters for half-pence and farthings. Now 
the people of Wales were happy, for there was a prophecy 
handed down from Merlin, the magician of King 
Arthur's court, that a Welsh prince would be crowned 
in England when all the coins were round. 

The Welsh were proud that they were Britons, and 
they hoped that some day such a king as Arthur would 
rule them. They rebelled against the English, but 
they yielded when Edward told them that he would 
give them a prince born in their own country to govern 
them. We can imagine their delight when he added 
that this prince could speak not a word of English. 
But their joy did not last long, for the prince was 
Edward's infant son, who had been born in Wales a 
few weeks before. Since then the eldest son of the 
English ruler has received the title of ''Prince of Wales.'^ 

Edward tried to conquer the Scotch, but in this he 
was not successful. He carried back, however, to 
England the Stone of Scone upon which the kings of 
Scotland were crowned. There is an old ballad that 
tells us 

" Unless the fates are faithless found 
And prophet's voice be vain, 
Where'er is placed this stone, e'en there 
The Scottish race shall reign." 



THE MANOR OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



139 



This stone is still preserved. It forms the support 
of the chair on which the English ruler sits at his 
coronation. 

Robert Bruce was crowned king of Scotland, but 
Edward defeated him and drove him into Ireland. 
Bruce had reasons to be discouraged: six times he 
had tried to save Scotland and six times he had failed. 
''I will not try again/' he said to himself. He had no 
sooner said this than he noticed a spider trying to 
weave a web. Six times the little creature had lost 
its hold as it was trying to fasten its thread. "If it 
tries once more and is successful, I will make another 
effort," said Bruce. The spider was successful and 
Robert Bruce had learned his lesson, and the English 
were defeated in the battle of Bannockburn. 

About four hundred years later, in 1707, Scotland 
united with England, and since then both countries 
have representatives in one Parliament. 

THE MANOR OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

At the close of a period known in Old World his- 
tory as the Middle Ages the 
common people were grad- 
ually asserting themselves, 
and the result of this in Eng- 
land was the introduction of 
the House of Commons, so 
called because it represented 
the common people. Let us 
look into the life of the people 

of this period. A Medieval Fortress 




140 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



In the eleventh century, at the time of the Norman 
Conquest, it was thought that the king owned all the land 
in England, and the lords and barons were his vassals 
or servants. The king would grant an estate to a noble 
on the condition that the baron would render his royal 
master some service in return. The estate was called 
a manor (from the Latin word meaning "to dwell"). 
Our word ''mansion" comes from the same Latin term. 
As war was the chief business of the barons, the most 
valuable service that a lord could render his master 
was to contribute soldiers for the king's army. But 
where would the nobleman get the warriors? The 
lord in turn granted portions of his estate to gentle- 
men of lower rank, called knights, and as military 
service was required of every man of rank, these 
knights were bound to furnish armed and mounted 
soldiers to fight the battles of the king. 

On taking the oath of loyalty the vassal would 
place his hands in those of his master and 
kneel down before him, promising to defend 
his lord against an enemy and to be faith- 
ful to his vow. The master would then 
raise him and acknowledge him as his vas- 
sal by giving him a kiss. But if the servant 
proved unfaithful to his pledge his land was 
taken away and given to another. 

Who plowed the fields and tilled the soil 
of the manor? This was done by the serfs. 
They were different from slaves, as their 
service was attached to the land on which 
they lived and was transferred with it. They were 




Head-dress in 
the Eleventh 
Century 



THE MANOR OF THE MIDDLE AGES 



141 



sometimes called villeins (from the Latin word mean- 
ing a village. Our word 'Villain" comes from the 
same Latin term). 

Each serf had a little plot of ground which his over- 
lord had given him for service rendered; and he not 
only tilled his own soil, but for three days in the week 
he worked on his lord's land. But he was asked to 
do more than this; he was required to bring to the 
manor house some of the produce of his own little 
plot, and he was often compelled to take care of his 
lord's cattle and sheep. It is true he was allowed to 
grind his corn in his lord's mill and bake his bread 
in his lord's oven, but he was forced to pay for these 
privileges in labor. Then, too, there was an overseer 
to direct the serf's labor upon his lord's estate, and to 
see that he brought the produce in on the stated day. 

Such a relation which existed between vassal and 
lord was called the feudal system. 
The word ''feud" comes from an 
old French term meaning ''prop- 
erty"; but as strife arose between 
master and servant the word to-day 
means "a quarrel." 

The serfs of the Middle Ages were 
of all classes the most wretched. A 
time came, however, when they re- 
belled, and their condition was im- 
proved, for the lords realized that it 
was to the master's interest to pro- 
tect those who supported him. Later there were con- 
tracts entered into by both parties, and in this way the 




Three Peasants of the 
Sixteenth Century 

Drawn by Diirer 



142 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



serfs came to pay a stated rent for their property; 
and still later there came a day when there were 
landlords and tenants with leases for short terms or 
long terms. 



■■iimMm 



THE WALLED TOWN 

There were times when a serf would run away from 
the manor and find employment within the walls of a 
town. Some of these walls date back to the Roman 
days. An inscribed tablet on an old wall in London 
to-day calls attention to the fact that it was built by 

the Romans cen- 
turies ago. There 
are other fragments 
in the city of the 
same wall which 
once surrounded 
the town. And 
some of the streets 
in London mark the 
localities of the old 
gates which led into 
the walled city, 
such as Newgate, 
Cripplegate, and 
Ludgate. 

Outside the 
bounds of the city 
walls William the 
Conqueror erected a tower to overawe the citizens of 
London. It stands on the bank of the Thames (temz) 




A Tournament in the IVIiddle Ages 

From an old print 



THE WALLED TOWN 143 

and was first a royal palace and stronghold. Later 
other buildings were added to it, and it became a 
prison which we know in history as the Tower of 
London. It is now used as a government arsenal. 

The lord's castle also had a strong tower where he 
and his family dwelt in time of danger. On the main 
floor of the castle was the dining hall where the noble 
entertained his guests. Underneath the hall was the 
gloomy dungeon where offenders were imprisoned. 
Around the tower was a fortress wall and outside of 
this a ditch or moat. Over it was a drawbridge and 
there was a portcullis made of strong iron bars that 
could suddenly be dropped in case of surprise. 

The inhabitants of the city would combine to defend 
their walls. But this was not the only union; the 
merchants and artisans v/ould form associations to 
protect their manufactures and trades. These were 
called gilds, and at one time there were as maRy as 
a hundred such unions in London. There were the 
Fishmongers, the Haberdashers, the Drapers, the 
Goldsmiths, and the Grocers. Some of the gilds 
would give plays at different corners of the streets 
presenting stories from the Bible, and their stage 
was a three-story wagon representing hell, earth, and 
heaven. 

Many of the gilds would meet in halls in which they 
transacted business and held festivities; and among 
the most interesting buildings to-day in London are 
the old gild-halls, where the associations are still 
kept up, but they no longer exercise their ancient 
privileges. 



144 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



TRAINING FOR KNIGHTHOOD 

Closely associated with the feudal times is chivalry 

or the system of knighthood. All men might aspire 

to the honors of knighthood, but usually the title was 

given only to nobles. The young nobleman was left 

in the care of his mother until he was seven years of 

age. The boy played marbles and battledore and he 

learned to ride a horse, for the best horseman is he 

who has ridden from childhood, and a knight was 

required to ride well. 

After seven years of age the youth was sent to the 

castle of some great nobleman, and here he served as 

a page. And now what were his duties? He waited 

upon the ladies of the castle, and he entertained them 

by singing songs and playing upon the lute. He 

learned to be courteous, brave, and truthful. He was 

trained to be strong and his exercises were fencing and 

hunting. 

At fourteen years of age he became a squire, and 

then until he was twenty 

he attended the knights in 

tournaments. These were 

exhibitions in which there 

were tilts with lances. Two 

opposing parties of knights 

would contend on horse- 

, ^., . , ^ back with blunted weap- 

A 1 lit with Lances i , i , <• i i 

ons, and the art ot the 

contest consisted in the rider's turning his horse so as 

to avoid the opponent's blow. A lady of high rank 




TRAINING FOR KNIGHTHOOD 145 

would generally award the prize to the victor. The 
squire helped the knight to put on his armor or to raise 
him when he had fallen from his horse. These tour- 
naments were fought vigorously. Accidents often 
happened. In one such tourney a king of France, 
Henry II, was killed. 

When the candidate's apprenticeship was ended, 
he was ready to enter into the order of chivalry. 
The title of knighthood might be conferred on the 
field of battle, but it was more often given during one 
of the great Church festivals, such as Christmas, 
Easter, or Whitsuntide. No one could take the title 
who was not a Christian or who was not willing to 
fight for his church and country. 

Before the candidate received the title he went to 
the church and there he spent a day and a night in 
prayer and fasting. His armor was laid upon the 
altar and the priest blessed it. Now the candidate 
was prepared to make his vow to be a valiant knight. 
As he knelt before the altar he swore that he would 
right all wrong, that he would honor all women, and 
that he would protect the weak and defenseless. Then 
a knight of high rank drew his sword and struck the 
candidate saying, ^'I dub thee knight in the name of 
God and in the name of the King." This light blow 
and salutation was called the accolade. 

The ceremony was now ended and the newly made 
knight arose and received the formal kiss into the 
order of chivalry. Ladies of high degree helped him 
to put on his spurs and armor, and he then sprang upon 
his horse and rode from the church. 



146 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



THE CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 

During the Middle Ages labor and money were not 
spared to build beautiful churches and cathedrals. 
Years and years passed before they were completed. 
In the old Greek temples the columns played an impor- 
tant part in architecture^ but in the Middle Ages there 
was the pointed style with its crosses and spires. 
These cathedrals still stand as places for worship, and 
many thousands and thousands of people from different 
countries visit them every year. 

The Canterbury Cathedral in England dates back 

to the Middle Ages. In 1 170 
Thomas a Becket was Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. He 
was at first friendly with the 
king, Henry II, but they did 
not remain long on good 
terms, and the archbishop 
opposed the king. In a mo- 
ment of anger Henry cried, 
^'^^Tiat a pack of cowards I 
have in my court. Not one will rid me of this upstart 
priest." 

He had no sooner said this than four knights hastened 
to Canterbury and there in the cathedral they sought 
their victim. ''Where is Thomas a Becket, the 
traitor?" they cried. ''Here I am," exclaimed the 
archbishop as he came forward. "I am no traitor 
to the king," he said, "I am a priest." Heavy blows 
followed and soon the Archbishop of Canterbury lay 




Canterbury Cathedral 



THE CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 147 

dead at the altar. ''He will rise up no more," cried 
the knights as they fled from the cathedral. 

But in this they were mistaken, for Thomas a Becket 
dead was even more powerful than alive. The Church 
cried out in horror at the murder of the archbishop 
and he became the most popular of saints. His body 
was placed in a large and stately tomb in the cathedral, 
and many thousands of pilgrims have knelt at the 
martyr's shrine. 

Before the Middle Ages closed Geoffrey Chaucer, 
the father of English poetry, wrote the ''Canterbury 
Tales." They are stories that the pilgrims tell on 
their journey to the shrine of Thomas a Becket, and 
the one who tells the best story is to have a supper at 
the expense of the others. But the worn stone steps 
of the Canterbury Cathedral to-da}^ also tell a story. 

Nor must we forget the monasteries of the Middle 
Ages. Many of the monks were workers in the im- 
provement of land and they taught the people how 
to till their fields to better advantage. They gave 
instruction in glass-making and wood-carving. Stu- 
dents went to the monasteries to study Latin, and 
there to read the Latin authors. Books were not 
printed in those days, but written on parchment scrolls 
by the monks, who also translated the old manuscripts. 
All this required years of labor, and it is largely due 
to the work of the monasteries that ancient literature 
has come down to us. 




CHAPTER VII 
The Crusades 

N the Middle Ages the Christians of 
Europe made pilgrimages to Jerusalem, 
the Holy City where Christ had lived. 
The Arabs had conquered the Holy 
Land. They were not Christians but 
Mo-ham'med-ans. Their Bible was the 
Koran, the recorded teachings of their 
religious leader, Mohammed. 

Many of the Arabs worshiped idols, 
but Mohammed beHeved that there was one Supreme 
Being — Allah. He recognized Christ as a prophet of 
God, but he proclaimed himself as a greater prophet. 
He would often wander to the desert, and there in a 
cave he would pray and meditate. He told of a vision 
that had come to him while he was thus praying. An 
angel appeared with a silken banner and on it the words 
were written in gold. ^^Read," said the heavenly mes- 
senger. Mohammed had never learned to read, but as 
he was looking at the writing, there suddenly came to 
him the power to interpret the words. They revealed 
to him, he said, a higher religion than had ever been 
preached, and he was commanded by the angel to 
teach it to his people. 

148 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 149 

He began to preach in Mecca, his native city, but 
here he had many enemies, and he and his disciples 
fled to Me-di'na, another city in Arabia. Even to this 
day the Mohammedans do not reckon their time 
from the birth of Christ as we do, but from Moham- 
med's flight to Medina, which took place six hundred 
and twenty-two years after the birth of Christ. 

At Medina, Mohammed ordered a temple to be built, 
called a mosque. Here he preached and 
assembled the people five times a day 
for prayer. And although it is more 
than a thousand years since he lived, 
his followers in the East still obey the 
call, ^^Come to prayers! God is great 
and Mohammed is his prophet." And 
as they pray they turn their faces 
tow^ard Mecca, the birthplace of their Mohammed 

DrODhet From an old print 

J\ i* -I 1 (Traditional likeness) 

The Arabs, however, were kind to the 
Christians when they came to Jerusalem, and gave them 
protection when they made their pilgrimages to the 
sepulcher of their Lord. But there came a time when 
the Turks, who were also Mohammedans, conquered 
the Arabs and obtained possession of Jerusalem. They 
were fierce and cruel, and they either put the Chris- 
tian pilgrims to death or made them endure terrible 
torture. 

THE FIRST CRUSADE 

In the latter part of the eleventh century. Pope 
Urban at Rome made an appeal to the Christians of 
Europe to deliver Jerusalem, their Holy City, from 




150 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



the Turks. The Pope had been moved to action by 
the preaching of Peter the Hermit. He went to Cler- 
mont in France, and there in an open field he spoke 
to a large gathering of people — lords and kniglits, 
squires and pages, merchants and peasants. Indeed, 
men in every station of life came to listen to him. 

He told them that the Holy 
City was now in the hands of 
unbelievers and that Chris- 
tians were murdered within 
the Church of the Holy Sep- 
ulcher and that the City must 
be saved. He had hardly 
concluded when that vast 
assembly cried out, ^^God 
willsit! Godwillsit!" ''Let 
that be your battle cry," said 
the pope. And then he gave 
each a blood-red cross. 
''Wear it upon your shoulder 
as a symbol of your zeal in 
the service of Christ," he 
said. 

It was not many months 
after Pope Urban 's appeal 
that a vast number of Chris- 
tians set out to deliver Jeru- 
salem from the cruel Turks. Such a movement was 
called a crusade (from the Latin word crux, meaning a 
cross). These crusaders took neither money nor food 
with them. The pope had told them that God would 




Peter the Hermit preaching the 
First Crusade 

From a painting by Archer 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 151 

I 

take care of them, and he chose as their leader the 
French monk who had first suggested the crusades. 

This monk was called Peter the Hermit because he 
had deserted the world and lived in seclusion. He was 
a small man with a long white beard and deep, searching 
eyes. Late in life he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 
and one morning while he was praying before the Holy 
Sepulcher, he thought he heard a voice saying, ''Peter, 
arise! Hasten to tell France of the suffering of God's 
people!" When he returned to his native country he 
proclaimed the cruelty of the Turks and told of the 
Christian martyrs. He would journey from place to 
place, mounted upon a mule and wearing a coarse 
woolen mantle. And Pope Urban said, '^ Peter the 
Hermit is the man to lead the crusade." 

In the spring the impatient crowd of more than 
sixty thousand set out on their journey to Jerusalem. 
Peter the Hermit had no easy task in leading these 
people. Some went for selfish reasons — to see new 
countries and to plunder. There were robbers and 
thieves among this marching crowd. A goose and a 
goat were led at the head of the procession, for it was 
thought that these creatures had wisdom beyond the 
knowledge of man. There was order for a time, and 
all went well. The pilgrims passed through Germany, 
and the people gave them food. But as they journeyed 
on into Hungary and Bulgaria, they were attacked by 
the rude inhabitants, and the crusaders took revenge 
upon the people who refused to supply them vv^ith pro- 
visions. There were bloody fights, and more than 
thirty thousand that had set out for Jerusalem perished. 



152 • THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

At length the remaining pilgrims reached Constan- 
tinople, where the Greek Emperor Alexius allowed 
them to pitch their camp to wait for new bands of 
crusaders. They did not seem to appreciate the 
emperor's kindness, for they plundered not only houses 
but churches. He was, indeed, glad to get rid of 
them, and he induced them to go on. Before they 
started out again they were reenforced by great 
numbers of Germans and Italians. 

They now marched on, and in time came to the terri- 
tory of the Turks. ''God wills it! God wills it!" was 
the cry. It was not long before a terrible battle took 
place on the plains of Nice. But the Turks were vic- 
torious and slaughtered the Christians unmercifully. 

Of these first crusaders more than two hundred 
thousand perished, and yet Jerusalem was not deliv- 
ered from the infidels. 

But the crusades did not cease. There now arose 
another leader, Godfrey of Bouil- 
lon, a French nobleman of great 
strength. There was not the dis- 
orderly crowd this time, but there 
ir^ were four large armies well organ- 
ized. They passed through Ger- 
many, crossed the plains of 

'^'"'^^Blumon''^ "^^ Hungary, and fought their way 
through mountain passes. Finally 
they reached Constantinople, and there they were joined 
by Peter the Hermit, for he had escaped to that city. 

Later they all marched on toward Jerusalem. 
Many were killed on the way in battle, and many 




THE FIRST CRUSADE 153 

died of hunger and thirst. But they were sincere in 
their purpose, and they chanted as they marched, 
''Let the Lord arise, and let his enemies be scattered." 
At length they came within sight of the Holy City, 
and it was not long before a siege was begun. For 
forty days it lasted, and proved successful. Godfrey 
erected the cross, the standard of the Christian 
soldiers, on the walls of Jerusalem. 

At last the Holy City was delivered from the Turks, 
but not without a terrible massacre, and in that dark 
age the Christian knights were as brutal as the infidels. 
Their one thought was to save Jerusalem. ''God wills 
it! God wills it!" they cried. And as they entered the 
city they were wild with joy. They took off their 
shoes, and fell upon their knees, kissing the ground 
where Christ once trod. 

And now who was to rule the Holy City? Ten 
electors were appointed to choose a king, and Godfrey 
was their choice. But he refused the royal title, 
saying, "I will not wear a crown of gold in the city 
where Christ wore a crown of thorns." He was 
willing, however, to accept the title of Defender of 
the Holy Sepulcher, and he solemnly pledged himself 
to rule with justice and honor. 

After a time most of the crusaders returned to their 
homes. The others remained with Godfrey in Jerusa- 
lem. No one rejoiced more that the Holy City was 
saved than Peter the Hermit. He returned to France 
and spent his last years in a monastery. 



154 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

KING RICHARD AND THE THIRD CRUSADE 

The Christians had control of Jerusalem for more 
than eighty years when it fell again into the hands of 
the Mohammedans. There was a second crusade, led 
by the king of France and the emperor of Germany, 
but it ended in failure. 

The Christians of Europe, however, did not give up. 
Later there was a third expedi- 
tion to the Holy Land. And 
who took part in it? Two 
kings and an old emperor led 
this crusade. They were Philip 
II of France, Richard I of Eng- 
land, and Frederick I of Ger- 
many. 
„ , , ^, .,. , ^ Emperor Frederick was now 

Seal of Philip of France ^ 

almost seventy years of age, 
and he had been Germany's ruler for nearly forty years. 
His enemies called him Bar-ba-ros'sa, because of his 
long, red beard. We should think that he would have 
much preferred to remain at home and enjoy the quiet 
of his palace. But no, aged as he was, he liked adven- 
ture, and he sent a royal challenge to the great Moham- 
medan ruler, SaFa-din. ''Thou hast profaned the 
Holy Land," said the challenge, ''and God willing, you 
shall learn by experience the might of our forces." 

But Barbarossa never reached Jerusalem. He and 
his great army were not far from the Holy Land when 
they came to a river of pure water. It is said that 
v/hile the old emperor was bathing in the stream, he 




KING RICHARD AND THE THIRD CRUSADE 155 



was seized with cramps, and the swift current carried 
him away. The legend tells us that on a roc*k near 
the stream were carved the words, ''Here the greatest 
of men shall perish." Even to this day there are 
German peasants who believe that Barbarossa is not 
dead, but that he is sleeping in a rocky cavern in the 
German hills, and that some day he will return to 
the people and help them. 

Richard, known in history as the Lion-Hearted, was 
the first English king to engage in the 
crusades. But he had not sufficient 
money for the undertaking, and what 
did he do? He sold not only state 
positions, but church offices to any 
persons that could pay for them, no 
matter what their characters were. 
He gave towns more liberal charters 
if they paid him money. When one 
of his courtiers warned him against 
selling his castles and estates, he ex- 
claimed, ''I would sell London if I 
could find a purchaser rich enough to buy it." 

Before Richard set out with his great army, he laid 
down the following laws: 

''If a man slay his comrade on ship board, let him 
be bound to the dead man and cast into the sea." 

"If a man slay his comrade on shore, let him be 
bound in the same way and be buried alive." 

At last the crusaders w^ere ready, and they started 
on their long journe}^. In the spring (1191) they 
reached Cy'prus, an island in the Med'i-ter-ra'ne-an 




Richard I 

From an engraving by 
Vertue 



156 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



Sea, and from this place they set sail for the Holy 
Land. Finally they came to the harbor of A'cre, a 
town that the Christians were besieging. King Philip 
of France had already arrived there. The inhabitants 
were Turks. They had heard of the lion-hearted 
Richard, and they were indeed afraid of him. 




Battle of Acre 

From an old woodcut 

But the Christians welcomed the arrival of the 
Enghsh king. ''If you do not capture this town," he 
had said to his soldiers, ''I will kill every one of you." 
It was a terrible siege, and Richard was always in the 
midst of the battle. More than two hundred thou- 
sand Christians and Mohammedans were killed, and 
the Turks were at last forced to surrender. Long 
after the siege of Acre the mere mention of King 
Richard's name brought terror to the inhabitants. 



KING RICHARD AND THE THIRD CRUSADE 157 

When the Turkish mothers desired their children to 
obey, they would say, ^^Be careful, or King Richard 
will get you.'' Or if a horse started at some object, 
the rider would call out, ''Dost thou think that King 
Richard is behind it?" 

King Philip was jealous of King Richard's fame. 
He complained of being ill and said that he would 
leave the crusade and return to France. *'If you are 
ill, and are afraid to die in the Holy Land," said Richard 
scornfully, ''I shall not urge you to remain, but it is a 
disgrace to turn back before the work is finished." 

The French king, however, went back to France, 
and Richard was left alone in command. He then 
began his march toward Jerusalem. But all along 
the way he encountered the forces of Saladin, and 
terrible battles were fought. At As'ca-lon King 
Richard gave orders to rebuild the walls of the city that 
had been destroyed by the Mohamniedans. The 
Enghsh king even carried mortar and stones himself, 
but the German Duke Le'o-pold refused to do such 
work. ''I am a soldier, and not a carpenter or a 
mason," he said, and he returned to Germany. 

There was an old chief of a tribe called As-sas'sins, 
who aided the Mohammedans. He was known as the 
''Old Man of the Mountain," and from his hiding- 
place he would send out the strongest of his men who 
would suddenly fall upon the Christians and stab 
them to death. And to-day we have the word "assas- 
sin," which comes from the name of this tribe. 

Richard, too, had his equal in Saladin. The Mo- 
hammedan leader was as brave and as cruel as the 




158 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

English king, but he was also generous. It is said that 
at one time on the march, when King Richard was 
suffering with a fever, Saladin sent him cooUng fruits 
and ice from the mountain. 

The crusaders had fought battles, they had captured 

cities, but they had not 
yet reached Jerusalem, 
although every night 
was heard in their 
camps the solem.n cry, 
^^Save the Holy Sepul- 
cher ! ' ' But the^^ were 
not permitted to take 

Richard slaughtering the Saracens ihQ Holv Citv for 

From an old print -r^ • i ^ i t i 

Richard had unpleas- 
ant news, and he decided to return to England. His 
brother John was usurping his kingdom, the same John 
who afterward became king and was forced to sign the 
Magna Carta, as we saw in our last chapter. There 
was another disagreeable report — the king of France 
was plotting against Richard. 

He therefore proposed a three years' peace with 
Saladin, and it was granted. The Christians were 
permitted to enter Jerusalem and kneel at the Holy 
Sepulcher. But Richard would not even look at the 
Holy City. He veiled his face and exclaimed, ^' Those 
who are unwilling to rescue the Sepulcher of Christ 
are unworthy to view it." • 

It was not long before he returned to Europe. He 
knew he had enemies in Germany and France, and he 
disguised himself in the dress of a pilgrim. But in 



THE RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 



159 



Germany he was discovered by the ring on his finger, 
and Duke Leopold had his revenge, and cast him into 
prison. 

There is a story told that King Richard's favorite min- 
strel, Blondel, journeyed from place to place in search 
of his master. He would sing a French song that he 
and the king had composed, for Richard was fond of 
music and poetry. One day, as he was singing the 
song outside of a German prison, he heard a voice from 
one of the windows humming the second stanza. 




Richard's Prison Walls 

^'I have found the king,'' he said to himself, and he 
hastened to England to tell the glad news. The 
English were proud of their crusader king; they paid 
a large ransom for his freedom, and Richard returned 
to his people. 



THE RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 

There were other expeditions to Jerusalem, and 
among them was a movement known as the Chil- 
dren's Crusade. It occurred in 1212. Boys and girls 



160 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

imitated their parents then as they do to-day. In 
France a young shepherd lad named Stephen preached 
a crusade, and many young people gathered to hear 
him. 

Stephen was only twelve years of age. He told the 
boys and girls that Christ had visited him and had 
asked him to wear the cross and to lead the children 
to Jerusalem to recover the Holy Sepulcher. ''God 
wills it! God wills it!" exclaimed the young people, 
and they went from town to town urging others to 
join them. ''Where are you going?" they were asked. 




Crusader Knights at Tilt 

And the reply was, "We are going to Jerusalem." 
The children of Germany also joined the crusade, led 
by a youth named Nicholas. And there were more 
than fifty thousand boys and girls who set out on the 
journey, and as they marched they sang, ^' Lord Jesus, 
restore to us your Holy Cross." 

But the young people did not reach the Holy City. 
Many of them died from hunger and thirst, from heat 
and fatigue. Others were taken on board ships and 
promised a free passage to the Holy Land; but they 
were deceived. The owners of the ships were slave 
merchants, and the children were sold as slaves. 



THE RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 161 

The crusades covered a period of nearly two hun- 
dred years. But Jerusalem still remained in the 
power of the Mohammedans, and the Holy Sepulcher 
was not saved. 

Notwithstanding the crusaders' failure to recover 
the Holy Land, much good came from these expe- 
ditions. They taught courtesy, honor, and justice. 
They aided the weak and protected the oppressed. 
They encouraged learning and travel. They gave 
ideas in regard to the customs of other countries. 
They extended trade and they developed commerce. 
Let us see how they did all this. 

No city in Europe grew richer from trade with the 
East than did Venice in Italy. It is situated on the 
Ad'ri-at'ic Sea. It owned more than three thousand 
ships, and these were manned by more than forty 
thousand sailors. They would often carry the cru- 
saders across the Mediterranean waters. 

Venice, however, was more interested in trade than 
she was in recovering the Holy Sepulcher, and her 
ships would return with rich treasures from the far- 
away East. They would bring home spices, elegant 
silks, and beautiful mo-sa'ics. This trade not only 
introduced new articles of food and of clothing, but 
it gave the Venetians suggestions for adorning their 
public buildings and decorating their houses, and it 
was not long before the city became the home of mer- 
chant princes who lavished their wealth upon mag- 
nificent churches and palaces. Many articles that 
were brought from the East were now manufactured 
in Venice, and there sprang up inventions and new 



162 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

industries. As other people of Europe came to this city, 
they would carry back to their homes ideas and sug- 
gestions that they had received from the Venetians. 

But there came a time when Venice had a rival in 
Genoa, another seaport of Italy. It was a stately 
port, and it well deserved the title ''the proud." As 
it had also obtained important commercial privileges 
in the East, there were constant quarrels between 
Venice and Genoa, and it is said that wherever their 
ships met they fought. 

The crusades not only incited trade and commerce, 
but they aroused the spirit of inquiry. They increased 
knowledge, and at the close of these expeditions the 
two great universities of England were established — 
Oxford (1200) and Cambridge (1229). The numerals 
that we use — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, — originated 
in India, and were introduced into Europe from Arabia 
in the twelfth century. 

Five years before the last crusade, there was born in 

Florence the greatest of Italian poets — 

Dan'te (1265-1321). His grandfather 

had died in an expedition to Jerusalem. 

The poet said that he taught himself the 

art of bringing words into verse. His 

great poem, the "Divine Comedy," was 

prompted by his love for a little girl 

named Beatrice. Dante was only nine 

From the portrait ycars of age whcu he first met her at a 

by Raphael family fcstlval, and she was but eight. 

Later Beatrice died and the poet revered her memory 

in his great poem. 




THE RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 



163 




Petrarch 

From the painting by 
Topanelli 



Before Dante died, Pe'trarch was born (1304-74). 
He was not only a great poet, but a scholar who did 
much to revive learning in Italy. His father desired 
that his son should become a lawyer, but young 
Petrarch found law distasteful. He 
much preferred to read the manu- 
scripts of the great Roman poets. 
This made his father angry, and one 
day he threw the books into the fire; 
but the son pleaded so earnestly 
that the elder Petrarch allowed the 
half-burnt manuscripts to be res- 
cued. Later Italy recognized the 
poet and scholar, and Rome crowned 
him with a wreath of laurel. 

At the close of the crusades, not 
only poetry, but sculpture and painting came into promi- 
nence. We see copies to-day of a famous painting of 
Dante by Giot'to. In his youth Giotto was a poor 
shepherd boy. He would often amuse himself, as he 
was tending his flock, by drawing pictures of the sheep 
with a piece of slate upon a stone. As he was one day 
thus engaged, a great painter named Ci'ma-bu'e saw 
him. ''This boy will make an artist," said the painter, 
and he invited Giotto to his studio and gave him lessons. 

Another good influence of the crusades was, that 
they caused persons of different rank to mingle with 
one another. And when the lord and the vassal 
returned home, there was a closer bond between them, 
for they had suffered together on the long march, and 
they had fought for the same purpose. 



164 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

And, no doubt, out of the crusades came the system 
of chivalry, when the gallant gentleman put on his 
badge of knighthood and swore to speak the truth, to 
defend the right, and to protect the weak. 




CHAPTER VIII 
The Western World 

HE people of Europe in the 
time of the crusades gave 
their attention to the East. 
They did not know of the 
great Western Continent 
which to-day is the home 
of the Americans. Old 
sagas (tales of the North- 
men) tell us that before the 
time of the first crusade 
m^en from the Northland (Norway, Sweden, and Den- 
mark) had reached that Western World. But they 
accomplished little, and there were very few people in 
Europe who knew the story of their voyages. 

THE NORTHMEN 

These hardy and daring Northmen loved the sea, 
and they were fond of its waves and storms. They 
would wander far from home in their rude dragon- 
shaped ships. They had no chart, no compass, but 
they had bold hearts and strong wills. They were, 
indeed, the true kings of the sea. They would often 
take a raven with them, a glossy black bird, and when 

165 



166 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




they were far out on the waters, they would set the 
bird free. If it came back, they knew that no land 
was near, but if it did not return, these hardy sailors 
would row with all their might in the direction of the 
bird's flight. 

At one time (about the year 860) some of these 

Northmen had sailed 
far, far out on the 
waters, and they were 
driven upon the shores 
of an island covered 
with ice. ^^We will 
call this land Iceland," 
they said, and by this 
name we know the 
island to-day. Later 
came other Northmen 
who settled on the island, and one of these settlers was 
Eric the Red. He had heard of an island west of Ice- 
land, and he set out with a few followers in search 
of the land. They came to a craggy coast, but they 
soon found a grassy spot, and it afforded a contrast 
with its barren surroundings. '^We will give this 
country an attractive name," said Eric, ''and call it 
Greenland, for that will induce others to settle on the 
island." And it was not long before there was a 
colony of Northmen in Greenland. 

Eric had a son named Leif who had given up the 
worship of Thor (the Northmen's god) and had become 
a Christian. King Olaf of Norway sent Leif Ericson 
to Greenland to preach the story of the cross to the 



Sending out Ravens to find Land 



THE NORTHMEN 167 

natives. Leif was as daring as his father, and he 
was glad for this opportunity. ^^Let us sail to the 
south/' he said, '^and see what the land there is like." 

In the early fall (about the year 1000) he, with 
a crew of thirty-five hardy sailors, reached a stony and 
barren country which they called ''Flat-Stone Land." 
It may have been Labrador. They went to their 
ship again and sailed southward. Again they cast 
anchor. This time they came to a wooded coast. 
"It shall be called Woodland," said Leif. This country 
was probably Nova Scotia. 

But these Northmen wished to continue exploring. 
They followed the coast and came to a pleasant region 
where they decided to spend the winter. Here they 
cut down trees and built wooden huts. One evening 
a member of the party returned greatly excited. ''I 
have found grape-vines and grapes," he said. And 
they gave the name Vinland (Wine-land) to the coun- 
try. We do not know the exact spot of Vinland; it 
was, no doubt, somewhere between Nova Scotia and 
New York. 

In the spring Leif returned to Greenland with his 
ship filled with timber. And 
since he was successful in 
his voyage, we know him 
through the old Norse stories 
as Leif the Lucky. 

Other voyages were made 

to Vinland, but in time the Fragment of a Viking Ship found 

Northmen were attacked at Gokstadt 

by savage natives whom they called skraeFings (an 




168 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

inferior people). Later a terrible plague, known as 
the Black Death, fell upon Norway, and one-third of 
its people died; and the voyages to the western world 
ceased. 

These daring men from the North did not know 
that they had discovered a new continent. They were 
ignorant as to the shape of the earth, and they, no 
doubt, thought as they sailed out on the seas and 
came by accident to land, that they had reached only 
distant islands outside of their own country. 

MARCO POLO 

There lived in Venice about the middle of the thir- 
teenth century a rich merchant named Nic'olo Polo. 
He and his brother started on a trading journey. 
They were fond of travel and they enjoyed new scenes. 
After many months they came to the great empire of 
Kublai.Khan in eastern Asia. It is known to-day as 
China. Kublai Khan was delighted with these trav- 
elers. They told him about their own country, and 
when they were leaving, he asked them to return and 
bring with them one hundred teachers for his people. 

A few years passed, but Nicolo Polo could not get 
men willing to go to this far-away land. At last he 
set out from Venice with his son Marco, a boy of 
seventeen years. They first went to Con-stan'ti-no'ple, 
and from this city they started on their long, long 
journey to China. They stopped at Acre and went 
to Jerusalem. ^'We will get holy oil from the lamp 
on the Sepulcher,'' said Nicolo Polo, ^'and take it to 
the great Khan.'' 



MARCO POLO 



169 




Marco Polo 



Four years after leaving Venice they reached China. 
Marco was an observing youth and eager to learn the 
languages and customs of this strange people in the 
East ; and before long Kublai Khan made him his pri- 
vate secretary. The emperor 
would send him on missions to dis- 
tant provinces, and when the young 
man returned, he would greatly de- 
Hght the Khan by describing the 
things that he had seen and the 
people that he had visited. ^^If 
Marco lives," said the emperor, 
'^he w^ill come to be a person of 
great worth. '^ 

It was now twenty years since 
Nicolo Polo and his son left Ven- 
ice, and the father becoming old w^as eager to return to 
his native city. It was not easy for them to say good- 
by to their kind friend, Kublai Khan. He gave them 
gold, precious stones, and beautiful silks as a parting 
gift, and the travelers were soon on their homeward 
way. 

As Polo and his son had not returned, their friends 
at home said, ^^They are dead, they have been eaten 
up by some wild creatures. '^ The people of Europe 
believed that the eastern coast of China ran off into 
a wild region of darkness where there were terrible 
monsters. 

At last Marco Polo and his father were in Venice 
again, but even their own relatives and neighbors did 
not know these men in strange garments. And when 



170 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

the travelers told of their wonderful life in the East, 
the Venetians said, ^' These men are deceivers. Such 
things of which they tell cannot be true." Then what 
did the Polos do? They ripped open the seams in 
their long, coarse cloaks, and there fell out precious 
jewels — rubies, diamonds, and emeralds. When the 
people saw the rich treasures, they began to believe 
that the travelers' stories were true. 

At this time Venice and Genoa were engaged in war, 
and Marco Polo had been home but a short time when 
he was made commander of a powerful galley. But 
he had the misfortune to be captured, and he was 
carried a prisoner to Genoa. In the prison he met 
another captive of the war who had been a writer, 
and Marco dictated to him the story of his wonderful 
travels. He told of the grandeur and wealth of the 
great Khan's empire. He spoke of an ocean east of 
China, and he gave accounts of a land which we know 
to-day as Japan. 

As this book was written before the invention of 
printing, few at first had the opportunity to read it. 
Even these few readers said, ^'It is but an idle tale." 
And it took many years to prove that Marco Polo 
told the truth, 

THE VOYAGE OF DIAZ 

After the invention of printing, Polo's book was 
more widely read, and it became known in Portugal. 
In this country there lived Prince Henry, who was 
greatly interested in voj^ages to new lands. He estab- 
lished a school for navigators, and many scholars from 



THE VOYAGE OF DIAZ 171 

Italy who were tired of the petty wars between Genoa 
and Venice came to Portugal to study. 

Men were trying to find an ocean route from Europe 
to the eastern shores of Asia. ^' Why not sail down the 
western coast of Africa?" some said, and the sailors 
of Portugal tried this. There were those who beheved 
that the Indian Ocean connected with the Atlantic, 
and that ships could sail around Africa. But others 
said, '^Asia extends to the east and Africa far to the 
south; and these two continents come together in the 
far southeast." Then there was the belief that no 
ship could enter the torrid zone without being swal- 
lowed up in some steaming whirlpool, or perishing in 
the face of mysterious, unknown dangers. 

In 1486 Bar-thoFo-mew Diaz, a daring captain from 
Portugal, started on a voyage. He sailed south for 
many days without seeing land. He had passed the 
most southern point of Africa, but he did not know 
it. He then sailed toward the northeast and was 
in the Indian Ocean. He now wished to go farther, 
but his crew refused. They were tired of the voyage, 
and were eager to return to Portugal and the safety 
-of familiar waters. 

On their way home they came nearer to Africa, and 
they had great difficulty in passing the southern head- 
land. ''We will call it the Stormy Cape," Diaz said. 
But when he arrived in Portugal and described the 
cape to King John, his royal master said, ''No, call it 
the Cape of Good Hope, for you may have found the 
ocean route to the wealth of the East," 



172 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

In 1453 the fierce and warlike Turks captured Con- 
stantinople, and then there was trouble for Genoa. 

Her merchants 
were returning 
with empty ships. 
^^ The Turks have 
refused to let us 
pass into the Black 
Sea," they said, 
''unless we pay a 
heavy tribute. If 
we do this all our 
profits will be 
lost." And so 
Genoa's rich 
up, and her mer- 




Columbus explaining his plans 



trade with the East was given 
chants became poor. 

Years later one of her citizens said, ''We can reach 
India and China by sailing west across the Sea of 
Darkness" (the Atlantic). It was Christopher Colum- 
bus who said this. He put his plan before the learned 
men of his native city, but they laughed at him. And 
then what did he do? He went to Portugal. His 
brother Bartholomew had been with Diaz in his voy- 
age around Africa, and this, no doubt, gave Columbus 
encouragement. 

King John seemed to be much interested in what 
Columbus told him. But this king desired all the 
glory, and he secretly sent out a vessel to see whether 



CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 173 

the Italian's plan would be successful. The Portu- 
guese ship sailed westward for some days, but it found 
no sign of a route to India. It then returned, and the 
captain and his crew laughed at the idea of reaching 
the East by sailing across the Sea of Darkness. 

When Columbus heard what King John had done, 
he was angry, and left Portugal and went to Spain. 
But this country was engaged in war with the Moors, 
and the kingdom had little money for anything else. 

Who were these Moors? They were Mohammedans 
from the northern coast of Africa. 
At the close of the eleventh century 
they invaded Spain, and in the south- 
ern part of the country they estab- 
lished their kingdom of Gra-na'da. 
They had a grand and beautiful 
palace called the Al-ham'bra. For 
several hundred years there were 
struggles between the Moors in the 
southand the Spaniards in the north. ^^ ., 

■^ 11/. r 1 Moorish costumes 

Here is a story told of one oi these 
battles. A brave Spanish knight had captured the rich 
Moorish city of Va-len'cia. He was known as the Cid, 
which means the chief. After a long life of adventure 
he became ill, and as he grew weaker each day he knew 
that he soon must die. 

He ordered the gates of the city to be closed, and he 
then went to the church, where were assembled many 
knights and bishops. He said to them, '^You know 
that I have never been conquered, and let not that 
happen to me at the end." He then called a bishop 




174 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

and four knights and told them what to do after his 
death. ''The Moorish king will be here from Africa 
to besiege this city," he said. ''Let not the Moors 
know that I have died. And when the king arrives, 
tell the people to go upon the walls and sound trum- 
pets and to show the greatest joy that they can. For 
you certainly cannot keep the city after the enemy 
knows of my death." 

Then he turned to a trusty knight and said, "Saddle 
my horse and arm him well. Clothe my body in 
armor and place it upon the horse so that it cannot 
fall off. And let a bishop go on one side, and you, 
my brave knight, on the other. Then march forth 
and fight with the Moorish king." 

It was not long after this when the Cid died, and 
his followers did as they were directed. They left 
the city silently at midnight, led by five hundred 
knights bearing the banner of the Cid. When the 
Moorish king saw them he was dismayed. He quickly 
turned back and fled to the sea. And the city of the 
Cid was saved. "There were more than seventy 
thousand Christian knights," said one of the Moors 
as he described the Spaniards coming out to meet 
them. "And they were all as white as snow, and 
before them, mounted on a white horse, rode a knight 
of great size." 

In 1492 the Moorish kingdom of Granada was 
seized by the Spaniards, and the keys of the Alhambra 
were given to the Spanish king Ferdinand. Would 
Spain now listen to Columbus? We shall see. Dis- 
appointed, he was about to leave the country, when 



CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 175 

the good prior Juan Perez told him not to be dis- 
couraged. ^'I have been Queen Isabella's rehgious 
adviser/' he said, '^and I will ask her to help you." 

Not long after this the Queen sent money to 
Columbus so that he could buy clothes to appear 
well before her court. But now what happened? 
^'If I am successful/' said Columbus, '^ you must 
give me one-tenth of all the gold and other wealth 
that may be acquired." But Spain was not willing 
to accept such terms. Again Columbus went away 




The Alhambra 

discouraged. He had not gone far, however, when a 
royal messenger came after him in great haste, and 
bade him to return to court. 

This time his terms were accepted, and on the third 
of August, 1492, the three little ships, the Santa 
Maria, the Pinta, and the N'ina, set out from Pa'los 
on the great voyage. The king of Spain gave Colum- 
bus a letter to the Great Khan of China. There were 
one hundred and twenty men in the crew, and among 
them were criminals who had received pardon on their 
promise to go on the voyage. But Columbus had a 
better outfit than the daring Northmen. He had the 




176 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

mariner's compass which came from China. And he 
had the astrolabe, an instrument introduced by Prince 
Henry for observing the distance of stars; and by this 
instrument Columbus could find out his position. 
After several weeks of sailing Columbus and his crew 
reached the Canary Islands. 
Here they cast anchor to mend 
the rudder of one ship and to 
change the sail of another. 
Again they set sail, and when 
they had sailed for several 
weeks, they saw a flock of land 
birds moving to the southwest, 
and these birds became their 
pilots. 

Columbus rj.^^ gj^jpg g^.j^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ 

but no land was in sight. They had been on the waters 
for more than two months. The sailors begged Colum- 
bus to return, and when he refused, they secretly 
planned to throw him overboard. But now what hap- 
pened? In the evening of October 10th a fight was seen 
in the distance, and on the next morning there was 
the glad cry, ''Land! land!" 

On October 12th they went on shore, and Columbus 
and his men knelt and kissed the ground. Their eyes 
were fified with tears as they gave thanks to God. 
Then they planted the banner of Spain and took 
possession of the country in the name of King 
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. 

And what was this land? The natives called it Cat 
Island, but Columbus named it San Salvador (Holy 



THE NAME AMERICA 



177 



Saviour). He believed that he had reached India, and 

he called the natives Indians. The voyagers spent 

several months in the West 

Indies, and in January they 

were preparing to return 

to Spain with the glad 

news. 

Only two of the vessels 
went back, as the Santa 
Maria had been ship- 
wrecked. And on March 
15th, 1493, the Nina and 
the Pinta sailed into the 
harbor of Palos. 

Columbus made three 
other voyages to America. 
On the third voyage he 
reached the continent of 
South America, at the 
mouth of the Orinoco River. But he did not know that 
he had discovered a new continent; he believed these 
strange coasts to be parts of Asia. 




A Spanish caravel 

Sketch said to have been made by 
Columbus 



THE NAME AMERICA 

And how did this continent come to be called Amer- 
ica? It was named after A-mer'i-cus Ves-pu'ci-us, a 
friend of Columbus. He was born in Florence and 
had been employed by merchants who traded with 
the East. But when the Eastern trade was cut off, 
Vespucius left Florence and went to Spain. He made 
several voyages, and on one he reached the coast of 



178 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




South America. He did not know that Columbus had 
been there before him. 

When Vespucius returned home, he wrote to his 
friends in Florence telling of the won- 
derful new continent, of the delightful 
climate, and of the many strange ani- 
mals that he had seen. 

A few years later a German teacher 
of geography wrote a little book in 
Latin. He had read the letters of 
Vespucius, and he suggested in his 
book that the new continent discov- 
ered should be called the land of 
Americus, or America. To this book 
he added translations into Latin of Vespucius' letters; 
and as Latin was the language common to all edu- 
cated people in Europe, these letters were widely read, 
and the name America 
became popular. 

In 1515, three years 
after the death of Vespu- 
cius, another German 
made a globe, and on this 
globe the name America was given to South America 
only. But later it also became the name of the con- 
tinent to the north. 



Americus Vespucius 




Vespucius' autograph 



JOHN CABOT 

Before Columbus received the help of Spain, his 
brother Bartholomew had gone to England to ask 
King Henry VII for aid. But this monarch showed 



JOHN CABOT 



179 



no interest in the project. Later Columbus returned 
from his voyage, and the news came to England that 
Spain's ships had reached India and the empire of 
the Great Khan. 

This attracted the attention of John Cabot, an 
ItaUan who lived in Bristol, the principal seaport on 
the western coast of England. Merchants and sea- 
men dwelt in this town; and more than one of their 
ships had ventured out some distance upon the Sea 
of Darkness. 

John Cabot was born in Genoa, and he had been 
a merchant in Venice. He had trav- 
eled in Arabia, where he had bought 
spices from the caravans. '^ Where 
did you get these spices?" he would 
ask them, and they would reply, 
^'From islands, far, far to the east." 

And Cabot never forgot these spice 
islands. He believed the earth to be 
round. ^'By sailing west I can reach 
these islands," he said. But he was 
poor, and how was he to get a ship? 
King Henry aided him, and the people 
of Bristol were eager for the rich treas- 
ures of the East, and they fitted out a little vessel, 
named the Matthew, and the King gave him his royal 
commission. It was not long after this, on a beautiful 
May morning, 1497, that John Cabot, with a crew of 
eighteen men, sailed from the harbor of Bristol. 

In June they reached land. How delighted they 
were. ''We have found China," they said. They 




Sebastian Cabot 
who accom- 
panied his brother 
John 



180 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

landed and planted a large cross with the banner of 
England. And Cabot did not forget Venice; he erected 
also the banner of Saint Mark — the patron saint of 
that city. They then began their search for the rich 
treasures of the East. They saw no people, nor did 
they find spices or gold. They found, however, some 
notched trees, snares for catching game, and needles 
for making nets. ''People must live here," said Cabot. 

He now decided to return to England, and by the 
end of July they were in Bristol again. They told of 
the part of China that they had visited. They spoke 
of the excellent climate. They said that the waters 
that washed its shores were filled with fish that could 
be caught not only with nets, but with baskets. 

King Henry was pleased, and he clothed the dis- 
coverer in silk, and gave him ten pounds of EngUsh 
money ($48.66), and whenever Cabot appeared on the 
street, people followed him and called him the Great 
Admiral. Later he made a map of his discovery and 
a globe which greatly interested England. 

But Cabot had not reached China. Just where he 
landed we do not know. It may have been Labrador 
or Cape Breton. There is no doubt, however, that 
he was the first white man, with the exception of the 
Northmen, to discover the mainland of North America. 

VASCO DA GAMA 

In the meantime Portugal was busy. Spain was not 
to be ahead of her. Diaz was successful in sailing 
around Africa. ''We will send out another expedi- 
tion," she said, " and this time we will reach India 



VASCO DA GAMA 



181 



by way of Africa." With this aim in view she sent 
out Vas^co da Gama, and the parting instruction was, 
^^Find for us the kingdom of Prester John." 

This priest-king was supposed to have reigned over 
a rich and powerful kingdom somewhere in Central 
Asia. The legend said that twenty archbishops sat on 
his right hand, and that he was guarded by more 
than ten thousand knights, and that the commonest 
dishes on his table were of gold studded with pre- 
cious jewels. Although Marco Polo had never seen 
this mysterious prince, he frequently mentioned him 
in his book, and there were many people in Europe in 
these early centuries who believed the story of Prester 
John. 

On a hot July day, 1497, Da Gama sailed out on the 
waters from Portugal with three little 
vessels. Diaz had kept near the 
African coast ; but not this daring Por- 
tuguese. Boldly he struck out upon 
the Sea of Darkness, and it was more 
than ninety days before he sighted 
land; in November he cast anchor 
near the Cape of Good Hope. 

Again he set sail, and it was with 
difficulty that his ships passed the 
Cape. This time they kept near the 
shore, and after they had gone some distance, they 
saw large elephants on the coast. Near an island were 
seals. '^The big ones roared like lions," they said, 
^^and the little ones cried like goats." And to-day this 
island is called Seal Island, They saw native negroes 




Vasco da Gama 



182 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

dancing on the beach, and Da Gama cast anchor and 
exchanged three bracelets for a large black ox. 

In December they had passed the farthest point 
reached by Diaz. They sailed on until Christmas Day 
when they landed. They went on shore and called 
the place Natal after the day. They then struck out 
boldly across the Arabian Sea; and for more than 
twenty days no land was seen. But at length lofty 
mountains were sighted in the distance, and on a 
beautiful May day their dreams were realized — India 
had at last been reached by an ocean route. 

A story tells us that the voyagers were graciously 
received by the Indian king who was reclining on a 
couch of green velvet. He gave them water to drink 
and bananas to eat. After many strange adventures 
in this country, they set sail for home, their ships 
laden with the riches of the East. 

Portugal had found what Spain had been seeking; 
and when Da Gama returned with the rich treasures, 
there were people who made fun of Columbus. He 
had no gold to show or costly silks. They called him 
the Admiral of Mosquito Land who, instead of finding 
riches, had found a grave for the Spaniards. 

BALBOA AND THE SOUTH SEA 

After Columbus, other Spaniards came to the West 
Indies. Among them was Balboa. In Spain he had 
often been in debt, and he was not long in the New 
World when he made other debts. He was anxious 
to escape from his creditors, and an opportunity came. 
A relief ship was about to set sail for another colony, 



BALBOA AND THE SOUTH SEA 



183 




where some settlers were starving. Balboa found an 
empty barrel on the vessel, and he jumped into it. 
In a clever manner he closed the C£sk, leaving a httle 
opening for air. 

There he concealed himself until the vessel had gone 
some distance from 
shore. It was rather 
uncomfortable inside 
that barrel, and he 
was glad to get out of 
it. He now showed 
himself to the cap- 
tain, who became so 
angry that he was Balboa taken aboard ship 

about to throw the debtor overboard ; but the tall, 
handsome figure of Balboa moved him to pity, and he 
allowed him to remain. 

Later Balboa with some followers reached the 
Isthmus of Panama. They were seeking for riches. 
After going from one Indian village to another, they 
came to a friendly chief who gave them gold trinkets. 
And as the Spaniards were dividing the treasures, they 
quarreled among themselves. When the Indian chief 
saw how eager they were for gold, he pointed to a dis- 
tant mountain range, saying, ''Beyond that is a great 
body of water on whose shore is a land filled with 
gold." 

Balboa and his two hundred followers set out, deter- 
mined now not only to seek for gold, but to find an 
ocean for Spain, for then their reward would be great. 
On they went, through thick forests and over rocky 



184 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

hills. At last they came to a mountain from whose 
summit they saw the great expanse of water. They 
descended on the western side, and Balboa took pos- 
session of the vast sea in the name of Spain. This 
was in the year 1513. He called it the South Sea, but 
to-day we know it as the Pacific Ocean. 

MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE 

This great body of water was named the Pacific 
Ocean by Ferdinand Ma-gellan. 

Magellan was born in Portugal. When a youth he 
served as a page in the king's court at 
Lisbon. Later he sailed for India by 
way of Africa, and he remained in the 
East seven years. 

People were beginning to see that a 
new world lay between Europe and 
Asia. Magellan believed that if he 
could find a channel through this land, 
he could then sail across the ocean 
discovered by Balboa, and thus reach the spice islands 
by sailing west. He told his plan to the king of Por- 
tugal, but the king laughed at such "si crazy idea," and 
refused to help him. Then Magellan did what Colum- 
bus had done. He left Portugal and went to Spain. 

King Charles of Spain was much interested in his 
plan. He believed that such a route was possible; 
and late in September, 1519, Magellan left Spain with 
a fleet of five vessels. This made the king of Portugal 
angry, and he said, ^'Such actions are those of a 
traitor." It is true this king had refused to give 




MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE 



185 



help; but he now secretly feared that Magellan might 
reach the spice islands, and Spain, and not Portugal, 
would have the glory. 

Magellan's fleet sailed down the African coast, and 
it was not long before they 
reached the Cape Verde Islands. 
They continued to sail south- 
west, and in November they 
came to the coast of Brazil. 
Two months after this they 
entered the mouth of a great 
river, known to-day as the Ri'o 
de la Pla'ta. ''This is the chan- 
nel for which we have been 
looking," said Magellan, and 
the men were happy. They 
sailed up the stream — but 
now what happened? They 
found that the water was fresh, 
to the coast, the crew began to grumble and were eager 
to go back to Spain. 

The weather was cold and the storms were severe; 
but there were other hardships. Food was becoming 
scarce and the ration was less each day. ''Why 
should we perish here in the cold?" asked the sailors. 
"Instead of reaching the spice islands, we shall land 
on some icy shore." But Magellan would not turn 
back. "You are Spaniards," he said, "and have you 
not the pride of your country? Be patient, we shall 
reach the passage in the spring, and King Charles will 
reward you well. It would show weakness to give 




Around the world 



And as they returned 



186 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

up the undertaking now." He thus quieted the crew 
for a time. But at length they again complained. 
This time, however, Magellan was compelled to be 
severe, and there was bloodshed. After that his 
authority was not questioned. 

Thirteen months had passed since they had left 
Spain. It was now October, and again they were 
entering a channel. At last they found the passage 
that they were seeking. Day after day they sailed 
and finally reached an ocean. Its waters seemed calm 
after their stormy voyage, and Magellan said, ^'Let us 
name it the Pacific Ocean." And the passage through 
which they sailed, off the southern coast of South 
America, is known to-day as the Straits of Magellan. 

But the voyage was by no rneans ended. If they 
sailed back by the way they came, they would starve. 
They had now but three ships — one was wrecked and 
another had deserted. They decided to sail across 
the Pacific Ocean in the hope that land would soon 
be reached and food could be obtained. But it was 
more than three months before they sighted land, and 
then they reached a group of islands. The inhabitants 
brought them oranges, bananas, and cocoanuts; but 
these natives stole from the Spanish ships whatever 
they could lay hands on, and Magellan named the 
islands the Ladrones (which means ^'robbers"). 

Again they set sail, and later they came to another 
group of islands which they called the Philippines, 
after the king's son Philip. The king of one of the 
islands became a Christian. He ordered the idols to 
be burned and a cross to be erected, and he and his 



JACQUES CARTIER 



187 



people were baptized. But a chief of a neighboring 
island refused to pay homage to the Christian king, 
and then there was war, and in the desperate fight 
Magellan was killed. 

Magellan had reached the spice islands, but only 
one ship remained — the Victoria. Not only the 
brave leader was killed, but many of the crew had 
died from sickness. Those who were left sailed south 
to the Mo-luc'cas, and from these islands the Victoria 
took on board twenty-six tons of cloves. She then 
crossed the Indian Ocean and sailed around Africa. 

And three years after the fleet had set out, the 
Victoria was again in Spain. At last Asia was reached 
by sailing west, and the first great voyage around the 
world proved that the earth is round. 



JACQUES CARTIER 

France was also looking for a western route to 
China, and in April, 1534, Cartier' 
left St. Malo with two little ships 
and sailed straight across the ocean. 
In May he sighted New'found-land, 
and here he saw floating ice and 
white bears. Fishermen had been 
here as early as 1504, and had been 
coming ever since to the banks of 
Newfoundland for codfish. They 
had not explored the mainland, 
for they were interested only in fishing. 

But Cartier came for an entirely different purpose. 
The Spaniards were giving their attention to the south. 




Jacques Cartier 



188 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

^' There must be a northwest passage to the sea which 
leads to China/' said Cartier. And this northwest 
passage he was seeking. 

He and his httle party explored the coast of New- 
foundland. They met some Indians who seemed 
friendly. Cartier and his men cut down a large tree, 
and from it they made a cross thirty feet high, on 
which were carved the words, ''Long live the King." 
They then erected the cross and knelt down before it 
giving thanks to God, and they thus took possession 
of the country in the name of the king of France. 

But the Indians did not hke the planting of the 
cross. An old chief clad in bearskin, with several of 
his braves, approached the Frenchmen, and made 
signs that Cartier understood to mean, ''This is our 
country, and you must not set up any more crosses." 
The explorers deceived the Indians. They said that 
the cross was only a light to guide other men who 
might come to these shores. And when they gave 
the Indians red caps and copper chains, the old chief 
promised not to destroy the cross. 

Winter was coming on, and the Frenchmen returned 
to France telling of what they had seen — icebergs, 
white bears, and red men who lived by fishing and 
hunting. The next year the king gave Cartier three 
vessels to find out more about this new country, to 
estabhsh trading posts with the Indians, and above 
all, to seek a northwest passage to China. 

Again they sailed straight across the ocean. They 
entered a great gulf into which flowed a broad river. 
Cartier called the river the St. Lawrence, as he had 



JACQUES CARTIER 



189 



discovered it on St. Lawrence's day, and the gulf 
came to be known as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The 
water of the river was fresh, and the stream became 
narrower the farther they went. "But even fresh 
water may lead to the sea that touches the shores of 
China,'' said Cartier. 

They sailed up the river and came to a great cliff 
that extended out into the water, and 
there on the rock dwelt an old Indian 
chief with his tribe. He welcomed the 
Frenchmen, and gave them bearskins in 
exchange for knives and red beads. But 
when the explorers started to go 
farther up the river, the old chief 
objected, and he ordered three 
of his braves to put 
on black and white 
dogskins, to besmear 
their faces as black as 
coal, and to wear long 
horns on their heads. 

When the French- 
men saw these 
strangely dressed 

beings approaching in a canoe, they wondered who 
they were. "The chief says they are messengers of 
the Great Spirit," said the Indian interpreter, "who 
dwells up the river and who does not like pale-faced 
men." But Cartier only laughed at this, and he and 
his men sailed on farther up the streu^m. 

In the days of this old Indian chief there stood on 




Cartier taking possession in the name of 
France 



190 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

the cliff only a few Indian wigwams, but to-day there 
stands on this great rock the quaint city of Quebec. 

It was now early autumn. The explorers were 
passing thickly wooded shores, and the fohage was 
rich in red and yellow. They finally reached an 
island, and there they found an Indian village at the 
foot of a beautiful mount. 

In the village were fifty cabins built of wood and 
covered over with bark and skins. Each cabin had a 
garret where the Indian kept his corn to make bread. 
He would beat the corn into powder with wooden 
hammers, and then he would make a paste, and cut 
it into cakes. These cakes he would lay between hot 
stones, and in this way the Indian baked his corn 
bread. 

Around the village were three paHsades of strong 
stakes to protect it from attack. The Frenchmen 
ascended the mount beyond, and the view was so 
beautiful that Cartier exclaimed, ^'This is, indeed, 
Mount Royal," and later the Indian village became 
the site of a French town which we know as Montreal. 

The explorers then returned to their camp farther 
down the river where they spent the winter. They 
were anxious for this season to be past, for they had 
never experienced such cold weather, and many of 
their number died. The ground was so frozen that 
no graves could be dug, and the bodies were buried 
in snowdrifts. 

But in the spring when the ice melted and the ships 
could sail out of the river, Cartier and his party 
returned to France. He had not found a northwest 



CORTEZ AND MEXICO 191 

passage, but he had met Indians who exchanged rich 
furs for cheap colored beads, and he had discovered a 
great river — the St. Lawrence. 

CORTEZ AND MEXICO 

After Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean there 
were other Spaniards in the West Indies who were 
eager to find the land of gold. A Spanish exploring 
party had returned from the Mexican coast with rich 
treasures — jewels and gold ornaments, which the 
natives readily exchanged for glass beads, as they had 
never seen glass before. They told the explorers of a 
wonderful city in the interior ruled by a mighty king 
who had no end of gold. ^^This must be the kingdom 
of the great Khan," said the Spaniards. But they soon 
encountered hostile Indians, and the explorers thought 
it wise to turn back. 

When they arrived in Cuba, they told of the won- 
derful things that they had seen and heard, and the 
governor of the island decided to send out another 
expedition to explore the land of the rich and powerful 
king. There was no one more fitted to command than 
Her-nan'do Cortez. He was not only noted for his 
bravery and power of endurance, but he was bold and 
crafty. 

Accordingly, in February, 1519, Cortez started out 
with eleven vessels bearing more than six hundred 
Spaniards. He also took with him two hundred 
Indians, sixteen horses, and fourteen cannon. And 
early in March he landed on the coast of Yu-ca-tan', 
a peninsula in the eastern part of Mexico. Later he 



192 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



came within the empire of the great Montezuma, the 
king of the Aztecs. Their capital was Mexico, named 
after the war-god. 

It is beheved that these people came from the north. 

They wandered from place 
to place until they reached 
a lake. The legend tells us 
that as the sun arose, the 
Aztecs saw a great eagle 
perched upon a cactus that 
was growing out of a rock, 
and its wings were spread 
toward the rising sun. The 
bird held a large serpent in 
its claws. ''This is a fav- 
orable sign," said the people, 
''and here by the lake we 
will build our city." Even 
to this day the eagle and the cactus form the emblems 
of the Mexican repubhc. 

The story also relates that the great god of the 
air once dwelt upon earth; and while he was with 
the people, they had peace and prosperity. But other 
gods compelled him to leave the country, and he then 
sailed away in his magic boat. Before he left, however, 
he told the people that a day would come when he 
would return to them. And when they heard of the 
wonderful strangers in their land, they began to think 
that probably their kind god had come back. 

The Spaniards were soon cutting down bushes, and 
the natives were helping them to build huts with 




The emblem of INIexico 



CORTEZ AND MEXICO 



193 



stakes and, earth. One day they were visited by an 
ambassador sent by Montezuma. He asked the 
strangers about their country and why they came to 
Mexico. ''I am the subject of a powerful king beyond 
the seas/' said Cortez, ''and he has sent me with a 
present to your king, and a message that I must dehver 
in person." 

But the Aztecs wondered whether there could be 
another king as mighty 
2is Montezuma. This 
monarch feared that the 
Spaniards meant harm 
to his country, so he had 
sent with the messenger 
a present to gain the 
stranger's good- will. 
The gift consisted of a 
great basket of golden 
ornaments, cloaks of cu- 
rious feather-work, and 
ten loads of fine cotton. 
''The stories that we 
have heard about the 
wealth of this king are 
indeed true," said the 
Spaniards. 

The Aztecs had never seen horses, and when Cortez 
ordered the riders to go through exercises, the natives 
were astonished. They thought that the rider and 
horse were one animal. But they were more alarmed 
when a cannon was fired, when they saw its smoke 




FERNANDO CORTES. 

Hernando Cortez 

From an old effigy 



194 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



and flame, and beheld what the cannon shot could 
do. The natives allowed nothing to escape their 
notice. The Aztecs were Indians. They used pict- 
ure-writing, and the ambassador's attendants were 
busily making pictures of what they had seen to take 
back to their king. 

When the messengers returned, Montezuma was 

indeed fright- 
ened. He sent 
another pres- 
ent to Cortez 
and asked him 
to leave the 
shores and not 
to enter the 
Mexican capi- 
tal. But since 
the Spaniard 

had received the gifts, he was more determined than 
ever to march on to the city. 

The capital was built on an island in a salt lake. 
Three causeways of solid masonry led to it from the 
mainland. The houses of the city were large and 
built of stone coated over with white stucco. The 
flat roofs were often covered with flower-gardens. 
The great temple stood in the center of the capital, 
surrounded by a stone wall which was entered by 
four gateways. 

Now the Spaniards had reached the city, and Mon- 
tezuma, borne on a litter, came out to meet them. 
Over his shoulders was thrown a cloak of the finest 




Cortez approaching the Aztec city 



THE SEARCH FOR GOLD 



195 



cotton studded with pearls and emeralds. On his 
head was the royal plume of green feathers, and on 
his feet were sandals with soles of gold. He appointed 
his brother to conduct the strangers to a large building 
near the temple, and this was to be their quarters. 

The Spaniards had not been in the city long when 
the Aztecs said, ^^They are not gods. They have 
come to rob us. They throw down our idols and put 
up their crosses." And not many months passed 
before there was a desperate fight. Montezuma was 
taken prisoner, and the city of Mexico fell into the 
hands of the Spaniards. 

Cortez had won for Spain an empire of great wealth. 
The natives were converted 
to Christianity and gradually 
Spanish was the language 
spoken. Spain governed 
Mexico until the nineteenth 
century, when it became a 
repubUc. Porfirio Diaz be- 
came president in 1884, and 
remained at the head of the 
government until 1911, when 
civil war broke out in the 

, T , , , . A modern Mexican cavalryman 

country, and he and his 

party were forced to surrender to the revolutionists. 




THE SEARCH FOR GOLD 



It was hardly five years after Cortez had conquered 
Mexico, when Pi-zar'ro, another Spaniard, left the 
Isthmus of Panama in a little ship with a crew of 



196 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



eighty men. They had heard that to the south was 
a rich kingdom of gold. 

They sailed along the South American coast until 
they came to Peru ; and here they 
entered a city the walls of whose 
temples were lined with gold. 
They made friends with the na- 
tives and learned all they could 
about the people. They then re- 
turned to Panama with rich treas- 
ures of gold and silver. 

But Pizarro was not satisfied 
with a mere visit to the country. 
As Cortez had conquered Mexico, 
he would conquer Peru. And 
not five years passed before the 
Spaniard again set sail for the 
rich kingdom in the south. This 
time he had three hundred men 
and more than fifty horses. 

News soon reached the ruler of 
Peru, who was called the Inca, 
arrived on his shore. Like the 
Aztecs the Peruvians had never seen horses before; and 
the Inca thought it wise to make friends with a people 
that had such strange animals. Accordingly when he 
met the Spaniards he received them with great splen- 
dor. Pizarro invited him to his tent, and it was not 
long before the Indian chief called upon the strangers 
with a large number of attendants. 

''Now is our opportunity," said Pizarro, ''and we 




Pizarro on shipboard 

that strangers had 



THE SEARCH FOR GOLD 197 

must act quickly. At a signal a gun was fired and the 
horses with their riders rushed forward, and the 
Peruvians fled in terror. They thought the Spaniards 
must be gods, their horses monsters of the sea, and 
their firearms thunderbolts from the sky. 

But the Inca did not escape, he was taken prisoner. 
However, he was promised his freedom if he would 
give Pizarro a great quantity of gold and silver. To 
raise this ransom the Peruvians stripped their temples 
and palaces of treasures; and the people brought 
gold to the value of millions of dollars to the Spaniards. 
Now Pizarro had his gold but he did not keep his 
promise and release the Inca. The Indian monarch 
w^as shamefully put to death, and Spain won another 
rich empire. 

Ferdinand De Soto was with Pizarro in his conquest 
of Peru, and as his share of the spoils he received gold 
and silver to the value of many thousands of dollars. 
And now, after many years of adventure in the new 
world, De Soto returned to Spain a rich man. But 
he was not there long when a Spaniard came back 
from America with the wonderful story of El Do-ra'do 
— the Gilded Man. ^'We must find the kingdom of 
the Gilded Chieftain," said De Soto and he again set 
sail for the New World. 

The legend tells us that on the top of a little moun- 
tain was a lake in w^hich an Indian goddess dwelt. 
And whenever a certain tribe chose a new monarch, 
they would march to this lake with the chief borne on 
a litter from which hung sheets of gold. He was, 
indeed, the Gilded Man, for his body had been smeared 



198 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



with gum and over this was spread a layer of gold 
dust. When he reached the lake he plunged into the 
water to wash off the covering of gold; and the other 
warriors threw into the lake golden ornaments and 
precious jewels. Then the musicians played upon 
the horns and pipes, and the Indians danced on the 
water's edge. By this ceremony the red men beheved 
that they would gain the favor of the goddess of the 
lake. 

In this search for more gold De Soto first went to 

Cuba and from that 
island he set sail for 
Florida. He had with 
him six hundred men 
and more than two 
hundred horses. After 
landing they began 
their march, but the 
kingdom of the Gilded 
Man was nowhere in 
sight. On and on the 
Spaniards went 
through the pathless 
woods, through thick 
underbrush and swampy ground; and more than once 
they met unfriendly Indians who shot at them with 
bows and arrows from behind trees. 

They were marching toward the northeast, and they 
finally came to a river which we know as the Savannah. 
On the opposite side of the stream was an Indian 
village, and here lived a young queen. The Spaniards 




De Soto on the March 



THE SEARCH FOR GOLD 199 

made friends with the tribe, and the queen was rowed 
across the waters to meet De Soto. She placed on 
his neck a string of beautiful pearls to show that her 
people would be friendly toward the strangers and 
De Soto gave her a handsome gold ring in return. 

But the Spaniards found no gold here, and again 
they were on their march. They went west, then 
south, and finally north, crossing what is now known 
as the states of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. 
They endured many hardships, they suffered hunger 
and sickness, and as they went on, their numbers 
were becoming less, but they were determined to find 
gold. Even their clothes turned to rags and they were 
forced to dress in the skins of wild animals. 

Three years had passed since they started out in 
search for El Dorado; but De Soto would not turn 
back. On they went and now they came to the banks 
of a long and wonderful river. ''This is, indeed, the 
Father of Waters of which we have heard the Indians 
tell," said De Soto. Then they cut down trees and 
built boats, and rowed across the great stream. 

They continued their march westward, but they found 
no gilded city. They then turned south and came to 
the banks of the Great River again. And as De Soto 
was planning to build a large boat to sail down the 
river to the Gulf of Mexico, and then back to Cuba, 
he became ill with fever and died; and his followers 
lowered his body in the great Father of Waters. 

De Soto did not find the city of the Gilded Man, 
but he discovered a great river (1541), which is known 
to-dsij as the Mississippi. 



CHAPTER IX 




The white banner of 
Columbus (F and 
Y for Ferdinand 
and Ysabel) 



European Claims to America 

INCE Spain had conquered Mexico 
and Peru, and Spanish ships were 
bringing home rich treasures, other 
nations of Europe were eager to find 
gold and silver. Indeed it was neces- 
sary for Spain to be watchful or her 
rich treasure ships would be captured, 
and there was no country more eager 
to capture them than England. 

There had been a bitter feehng be- 
tween these two countries ever since 
EHzabeth ascended the English throne in 1558. In the 
beginning of the sixteenth century the church of Eng- 
land was the Roman Catholic Church, but Elizabeth 
was a Protestant and the state church had become 
Protestant. Philip II, king of Spain, was a strong 
champion of the Cathohc Church, and he called the 
English heretics — those who choose their own behef 
instead of the belief of the Church. 

The quarrels between Spain and England continued, 
and besides differences in religion, there was more 
reason for bitter feeling. Since the days of Diaz, 
Portugal was engaged in African slave-trade. Now 

200 



EUROPEAN CLAIMS TO AMERICA 



201 



English vessels were going to Africa for negroes. They 
would take their captives on board, and then sail on 
to the West Indies or South America. The Spanish 
planters and miners were in need of cheap labor, and 
they were only too eager to exchange sugar, gold, and 
pearls for slaves. 

Some of these English ships were commanded by 
Captain John Hawkins, 
one of the bravest of 
seamen. At one time, 
when he was returning 
with his little squadron 
of five vessels to Eng- 
land, a storm arose and 
he was compelled to 
seek shelter in a Span- 
ish port where there 
were ships loaded with 
rich treasures. 

Soon afterward a 
fleet of thirteen vessels 
from Spain arrived in 
the harbor, and then 
there was trouble. ^^We 
shall not interfere with your ships, if you will let 
us remain in this port to repair our vessel," said 
Captain Hawkins to the Spanish admiral. It was 
agreed, but the agreement had no sooner been made 
than the English ships were suddenly attacked by 
the Spaniards, and after a desperate fight three of 
Captain Hawkins's vessels were destroyed. He then 




A Spanish treasure ship 



202 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



returned to England vowing vengeance on the treach- 
erous Spaniards. 

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 

There was no one more eager to punish the Spaniards 
than Francis Drake, another vahant seaman. He was 
with Captain Hawkins on the voyage when the Eng- 
hsh ships were attacked. Now he 
was planning to sail on the Pacific 
Ocean where he could seize the ene- 
mies' vessels as they came out of 
the harbors of Mexico and Peru 
with their rich treasures. 

Queen Elizabeth was, indeed, 
proud of this daring rover of the 
sea, and she gladly consented to fit 
out a fleet for him. England was 
prosperous now and the queen 
knew only too well that a hand- 
somely furnished ship would reflect 
credit on her country. 

The Spaniards had once said, 

^'The English have houses made of 

But they had no reason to say that 




An Englishman of 1633 

sticks and dirt.' 



in Elizabeth's time. The prosperity and the wealth 
of the country were seen in the beautiful houses that 
were built and in the increase of daily comforts. 

The peasant now had a feather-bed and a pillow 
instead of straw and a round log. He had pewter 
and tin dishes on his cupboard in place of the wooden 
ones. And the house of the nobleman was richly 
furnished and decorated with tapestries of silk and 



SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 



203 



silver. He had glass from Venice on his table, and 
china dishes were beginning to be seen. It is true that 
in the early part of the sixteenth century he used his 
fingers in the place of a knife and fork, but before the 
century closed he had the knife. He waited, how- 
ever, a little longer for the fork, for that did not 
come into use before 1611. 

Queen Elizabeth liked splendor, and nowhere was 
this more evident than in the richness 
of her dress. It is said that she left 
at her death three thousand gowns 
made from the most costly material. 

She saw that nothing was undone 
when she fitted out the flag-ship of 
Francis Drake — the Pelican. There 
were gold and silver dishes on the table 
in the cabin, and strains of music made 
merriment for the voyagers as the fleet 
of five vessels sailed proudly out of 
Plymouth harbor one November day, 
1577. There were one hundred and 
fifty men in the crew and fourteen 
boys. 

They kept their plans a secret, for 
it would not be wise to let the Span- 
iards know the object of their voyage, 
ceive them by sailing to Africa," said Drake. And on 
they sailed to the African coast, then southwest, and 
it was not long before they came to Brazil, in South 
America. 

It was not a smooth voyage ; they encountered fierce 




An English lady of 
1631 

^^We will de- 



204 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 205 

storms, and now only the flag-ship was left to sail 
through the Straits of Magellan, and the name of the 
ship was changed from the Pelican to the Golden 
Hind. 

Soon the Golden Hind was out on the Pacific where 
Spain was mistress of the sea. It was a bold under- 
taking, indeed, for an English ship to show itself on 
these waters. Not many weeks passed before Drake 
saw in the distance the object of his search — a Spanish 
ship. Nearer and nearer the two ships approached 
and the captain of the Golden Hind soon saw that the 
enemy's vessel was the Spitfire, a treasure ship with 
a rich cargo. 

The English, however, were masters of the situa- 
tion; the Spaniards soon came to terms, and the cargo 
of rich treasures was transferred to Drake and his 
crew. Now that they had the prize the sailors of 
the Golden Hind were eager to return home. But 
their commander said, '^We dare not go back the way 
we came. The enemy will be after us." 

And what did they do? They crossed the Pacific 
Ocean to the Phifippine Islands, and then they sailed 
on the. Indian Ocean. Soon they passed the Cape of 
Good Hope, and along the coast of Africa they went. 

It was nearly four years since Drake had set sail 
from England, and now he was in the harbor of 
Plymouth again. 

Queen Elizabeth was not only delighted with the 
jewels and gold brought home, but she was proud of 
the sailor who was the first Englishman to sail around 
the world. She went on board the Golden Hind, and 



206 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



there on the deck of the httle ship she knighted its 
commander, and he was now the great admiral-at-sea 
— Sir Francis Drake. 



THE GENTLE LORD DE BAYARD 

Spain had another rival — France. These two coun- 
tries were engaged in war; both were fighting for 
the rule of Italy. Spain was occupying Naples; and 
the French, Milan. But after a short war the Span- 
iards took Milan. 

A handsome young prince, only twenty years of 
age, now became king of France. He is known as 
Francis I. Not many weeks passed after his corona- 
tion when the young king made preparations to get 
back Milan, and he had a brave knight to help him — 
Lord de Bayard. 

Bayard was born of a noble family. He had served 

as a page to a French 
duke. Later, his 
handsome face, his 
pleasing manner, his 
skill in the tilt at- 
tracted the French 
king, Charles VIII, 
who took him to Italy ; 

Cannon used in Bayard's campaigns ^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ 

young Bayard captured a standard in battle. The king 
then knighted him, and he was known as Lord de 
Bayard. 

When Francis came to the throne Lord de Bayard 
had served some years in the Italian wars, and he had 




^.^^^ 



THE GENTLE LORD DE BAYARD 207 

become famous for his ability and his daring deeds. 
On one occasion, it is said, that single-handed he 
defended a bridge against two hundred Spaniards. 

And now, when war again broke out between the 
king of France and the king of Spain, Bayard de- 
fended a frontier town with only one thousand 
men against an army of thirty-five thousand. This 
resistance saved central France from being invaded 
by the enemy, and the brave knight was declared to 
be the savior of his country. 

Later the Fiench again occupied Milan. Bayard 
was now asked to save another French army in Italy. 
A battle occurred and the knight was mortally 
wounded. He desired to be placed against a tree so 
that he might die facing the enemy. An officer of the 
Spanish army came up to the dying man and expressed 
sympathy. This officer had deserted the French and 
had joined the Spaniards, and Bayard refused his 
sympathy. ^^My lord, I thank you," he said, '^but 
pity is not for me who dies a true man, serving my 
king; pity is for you who bears arms against your 
prince, your country, and your oath." 

Even the enemy admired the noble Bayard for his 
virtues. They laid him on a camp-bed and placed a 
tent over him, and not three hours passed when the 
knight died praying, ''Father, I beseech Thee not to 
look upon the faults that I have committed." In the 
words of his secretary, ''The gentle Lord de Bayard 
loved and feared God, and he never swerved from 
speaking the truth." And in history we know him 
as "the knight without fear and without reproach." 



208 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

It was in the year 1524 that he died, and in that 
same year the French were defeated in Italy, and again 
they lost Milan. 

THE FATE OF FORT CAROLINA 

It was in the reign of Francis I that Cartier had 
discovered the St. Lawrence River; but an attempt 
to establish a colony on that river had failed, and 
nothing more was done for some time. France was 
too busy at home; she had her war with Spain and 
the Protestants, too, were causing trouble. 

In the early centuries the pope at Rome was con- 
sidered the head of all the Christian churches except 
the Greek Catholic Church in Russia and in Greece. 
The word '^ catholic" comes from two Greek words 
meaning entirely, whole, hence pertaining to the 
whole Christian Church. As soon as Spain laid claim 
to the New World she had her title confirmed by the 
pope. Portugal did the same. As early as 1493 the 
pope had divided the world into two portions by draw- 
ing a line on his map from north to south out in the 
Atlantic Ocean. Portugal could claim any land that 
she might discover east of this line; while Spain had 
the right to the land west of it. 

Nearly thirty years had passed since Cartier had 
ascended the St. Lawrence River, and now King 
Henry II of France was eager to have a portion of 
America. And when Admiral Coligny (Co-li-nyi') 
asked him to fit out vessels to carry emigrants to the 
New World, the king readily agreed. 

Henry was a Roman Cathohc and he disliked the 




THE FATE OF FORT CAROLINA 209 

Protestants, or Hu'gue-nots as they were called, in 

France. Coligny was a Protestant, and his great 

desire was to found a settlement 

in America where the Huguenots 

would not be persecuted as they 

w^ere in France. But he deemed 

it not wise to tell the king this; it 

was better for Henry to think that 

the object of the expedition was 

for France rather than for religion. 

At length two French vessels set "^^^ o ig y 

out with emigrants who were mostly Protestants. After 
sailing for more than three months they came to the 
coast of Brazil. They landed and called the place Fort 
Coligny after their friend in France. But they were 
soon attacked by the Portuguese and the expedition 
ended in failure. 

When the king learned that Coligny' s real object 
was to found a colony for the Protestants, he began 
to think that it was a good idea to rid the country 
of the Huguenots, as they were becoming a strong 
political party in France. Accordingly another expe- 
dition was sent out. This time the emigrants landed 
in Florida at the mouth of a great river ; as it was the 
first of May they called the stream the River of May, 
but we know it to-day as the Saint John's. Again 
there was failure. 

Now two years had passed since the first expedition 
had set out, and another attempt was made to estab- 
lish a colony in Florida. Again the River of May 
was reached. A ftDrt was built and named Carolina 



210 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



in honor of Charles IX, now king of France. There 
were not only attacks by the Indians but the people 
were not fitted to endure the hardships in a land of 
swamps and pine forests. They were discontented 
and they suffered from hunger. They were about to 
give up when a French fleet arrived in the harbor 
with supplies. Now they w^ere happy, and they would 
set to w^ork and begin life anew. But something else 
happened. 

A ship had sailed from Spain under Me-nen'-dez 

with a commission to conquer 
Florida. The Spaniards finally 
reached a small stream, which 
they called St. Augustine, and 
here they landed and planted 
the cross. This was in 1565, 
and it marked the beginning 
of the oldest town in the 
United States — St. Augus- 
tine in Florida. 
They had heard of the French at Fort Carohna and 
Menendez decided to attack the Protestant colony. 
^'This is the Church's war," he said, '^and it must be 
fought with blood and fire." The Spaniards surprised 
the French one dark night. They rushed in upon 
them shouting their battle-cry, ''Santiago! Santiago!" 
(Saint lago), and the fort was soon taken. This was 
the last attempt on the part of the French to establish 
a colony in Florida. 







Old Gateway at St. Augustine 



SPAIN AND THE DUTCH 



211 




^ = — <^/»* 



A Windmill in Holland 



SPAIN AND THE DUTCH 

Now Spain had trouble with her subjects, the Dutch. 
The Dutch have always been known as a plucky 
people. Indeed, they had 
earned the right to their 
country, for they had taken 
much of the land from the 
sea. At low tide they would 
build walls of stone as far 
out from the shore as they 
could. The walls were called 
dikes and the sea could not 
climb over these embank- 
ments. Their country was 
well named Netherlands 

(lowlands) and we know it to-day as Holland (from two 
words hollow and land). 

The Dutch must still fight the sea. They build 
their dikes of earth and clay, and these embankments 
extend not only along the seacoast for many miles but 
also into the interior of the country, for the people 
realize that at any time rivers and lakes may flood 
their land. The dikes are broad. On them are drive- 
ways, rows of beautiful trees, and fine buildings. 
And we cannot picture Holland without its windmills. 
They not only pump the water into the canals and 
drain the land, but they grind the corn and saw the 
wood. Indeed, this land of the Dutch is well called 
the country of dikes and windmills. 

Philip II was not only the king of Spain but he was 



212 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



ruler of the Netherlands. He had no sooner come to 
power than he was determined to punish the heretics, 
the Protestants, in the Dutch provinces. And what 
did he do? 

He sent Spanish soldiers into the country, who 
lived at free quarters on the inhabitants. He declared 
that the Protestants should not hold any meetings, 
and if they disobeyed they were to be punished. 




A Street in Holland 



He appointed his half-sister, the Duchess of Par'ma, 
as regent, and he also had a council of state to carry 
out his laws while he was in Spain. The Dutch were 
not only a sturdy people but they were independent 
and they rebelled against such laws as Philip made. 
Three hundred nobles. Catholics as well as Protes- 
tants, assembled one day and drew up a petition 
setting forth their grievances. They then marched 
four abreast to the court of the regent. 

They were not dressed as noblemen, they did not 
wear their cloaks of silk and velvet and their decora- 
tions of gold. They did not carry arms, and they 



SPAIN AND THE DUTCH 213 

were not mounted on horses. As they approached 
the court of the regent, a courtier whispered to the 
duchess, ^'Do not fear, it is only a company of 
beggars." Later at a dinner where the nobles were 
assembled one of their number filled a wooden bowl 
with wine and drank the health of the ''beggars." 
And the term became another name for the friends 
of Dutch liberty, and their party cry was ''Long live 
the beggars!" They put on the beggar's dress — a 
cloak of coarse cloth — and they wore as a symbol a 
little wooden bowl on the cap. 

The duchess received the noblemen graciously and 
she sent a messenger to the king with their petition. 

WILLIAM OF ORANGE 

There was a member of the council who disliked to 
see the people treated so unjustly. He was a hand- 
som.e young nobleman, not thirty years of age. We 
know him as William of Orange. He was so called 
because he had inherited the French province of 
Orange. William resigned his seat in the council, 
and now he began working on a plan to restore peace 
and freedom to the country. He was a wealthy 
prince and he had many friends. His generous nature 
and his tact won the good-will of the people. He 
gained the title of William the Silent. It was difficult 
even for his friends to read his thoughts if he deemed 
it wise to be on his guard. 

King Philip had received the petition, but instead 
of granting the request he dismissed the duchess and 
he appointed the Duke of Alva to succeed her. As 



214 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

the duke entered the Netherlands the Dutch nobles 
went out to meet him, hoping thus to gain his favor. 
But no favor was to be gained. ^'Welcome or not," 
said the duke, ''it is all one. Here I am." The king 
had given him unlimited power and, indeed, he exer- 
cised it. He appointed a council of twelve members 
with a Spaniard at the head, and the people well 
named it the Council of Blood. He seized the property 
of the rich, he tortured the poor, and he had the beg- 
gars put to death. ''The king," he declared, "would 
rather see the whole country a desert than allow a 
single heretic to live in it." 

In the meantime Queen Elizabeth and the Protestant 
princes of Germany aided William of Orange, and he 
marched into the Netherlands at the head of an army. 
Two battles were fought, but William lost both. He 
then went to France, and soon raised a more powerful 
army of French, English, and German soldiers. 

Philip recalled the Duke of Alva, and it was well 
that he did. On the first of April the beggars in the 
town of Briel raised the colors of the Prince of Orange, 
and the people sang on the street: 

"On April Foors Day 
Duke Alva's spectacles were stolen away." 

(The word briel in Dutch means spectacles.) 

The king appointed a new governor who abolished 
the Council of Blood and pardoned the rebels. But 
this did not bring peace, and the war went on. The 
Spaniards were determined to conquer the town of 
Leyden (Li'den), but the Dutch were even more 



SPAIN AND THE DUTCH 



215 



determined not to yield. For weeks the inhabitants 
had no bread or meat. Then a plague broke out and 
more than six thousand people died from disease and 
starvation. But the burgomaster of the town refused 
to surrender. ^'I have sworn to defend this city," 
he said, '^and with God's help I mean to do it." 

When hope seemed almost gone a carrier pigeon 
flew into the town with a message under its wing from 
the Prince of Orange. The message 
said that the dikes would be cut so that 
the sea could flood the land and wash 
the Spaniards from their fort. ' ' Better 
a drowned land than a lost land/' said 
the Dutch. And on the third of Oc- 
tober, 1575, the dikes were cut, the 
Spaniards fled in terror as the sea 
flooded the[land, and Leyden was saved. 
In memory of the heroic defense the 
Prince of Orange founded the University in the town. 
Not many years passed when the Pilgrims from Eng- 
land sought refuge in Holland and later sailed from 
Leyden to America bringing the love of liberty. 
' It was not long before the Dutch provinces united 
to expel the Spaniards and establish religious liberty; 
and this Union was the beginning of the Dutch 
Republic. The provinces chose William of Orange 
as their head, and he went to Delft to be inaugurated, 
but before the ceremony took place he was slain by 
an assassin. To this day the Prince of Orange is 
looked upon by the Dutch as the father of his country. 




William the Silent 



216 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



THE STORY OF SIR PHILIP SIDNEY 

King Philip was indeed pleased when he heard of 
the death of Wilham of Orange, for he had offered 
a large reward for the capture of the prince, dead or 
ahve. The Spanish monarch still held the southern 
part of the Netherlands which we know to-day as 
Belgium. But the seven united provinces had thrown 
off his tyranny, and after the death of Wilham, they 
elected his son to be president of their executive board. 
They then became known as the Dutch Republic, 
but to-day they are called the Kingdom of Holland. 
And the ruler of this kingdom is Queen Wilhelmina, 
a descendant of William of Orange. 

After William's death there was more fighting 
between the Spaniards and the Dutch. Queen Eliza- 
beth had secretly aided the Prince of Orange. Now 
she did not conceal her help, she sent English forces 
to the Netherlands. Several battles were fought, and 
at the siege of Zut'phen the queen's noblest courtier, 
Sir Philip Sidney, received a mortal wound. Bleed- 
ing and faint he was overcome with thirst, and he 
called for something to drink. After much difficulty 
a glass of water was brought to him, but as he was 
putting the cup to his lips he noticed the longing look 
of a wounded soldier near him. ''Take it," he said, 
as he offered the water, 'Hhy necessity is yet greater 
than mine." Soon after this the generous Sidney 
died. Among his last words were those to his brother, 
''Above all, govern your life by the will and word of 
your Creator." 



THE STORY OF SIR PHILIP SIDNEY 



217 



All England grieved when Sir Philip Sidney died. 
His charming manner and his goodness of heart won 
the affection of 
the people, and 
his character to 
this day stands 
as a type of 
generous and 
noble man- 
hood. Besides 
being a brave 
soldier he was a 
brilliant writer. 
In his story 




Shakespeare reading a play to Elizabeth 



^^Ar-ca'di-a" he wrote, ^^They are never alone that are 
accompanied w^ith noble thoughts." 

The century of Queen Elizabeth was indeed active in 
more ways than one. Besides Sir Philip Sidney the age 
produced many great writers. Edmund Spenser wrote 
his poem the '^Faerie Queen" at this time. But above 
all stood William Shakespeare, the greatest of the world's 
dramatists. 

THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA 

Philip had indeed reasons to dislike England. She 
was not only a Protestant country, but she had seized 
his rich treasure ships as they were returning from 
America, and now she was helping the people of the 
Netherlands in their rebellion against him. "I will 
teach England a lesson," said the monarch whom 
all Europe feared, and it did not take him long to 
decide how he should do it. 



218 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



The king of Spain was proud of his large war-ships. 
They could easily capture the small English vessels, 
he thought. He ordered the Spaniards to prepare a 
large fleet. This required a vast sum of money, and 
Spain was already heavily taxed because of her troubles 
with France and the Netherlands. But the king paid 
no attention to the burdens of the people. "We will 
conquer England for all time," he said, and more 
taxes were imposed upon Spain. 

Philip toiled day and night sending messages and giv- 
ing orders so that nothing would 
be forgotten and nothing over- 
looked. The Spaniards were truly 
busy, but none worked harder 
than the shipbuilders on the coasts. 
At last the ships were ready, 
and they looked like castles on the 
water. Philip called them the In- 
vincible Armada — a fleet that 
could not be conquered. The 
Armada consisted of one hundred 
and thirty vessels, carrying more 
than twenty-five thousand men. 

England was indeed frightened, 
and well she might be. But the 
people were determined that Philip 
should not invade their country, 
and their fleet consisted not only of royal war-ships, but 
even merchant vessels from small seaport towns were 
sent out. It is true their war-ships were smaller than 
the heavy slow-moving galleys of the Spaniards, and 




A Spanish grandee 



THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA 219 

they were manned with fewer sailors. But they were 
quicker in movement and many^of them were armed 
with newer guns. 

Not only Protestants but Catholics fought for Eng- 
land. Her fleet was commanded by Admiral Howard, 
a Catholic; and under him was Sir Francis Drake, a 
Protestant. 

It was in April, 1587, that Drake sailed out from 
Plymouth with a fleet of less than thirty ships. He 
was bound for the harbor of Ca'diz and there he 
would surprise the Spanish vessels defending the fort. 
He would singe King Philip's beard, he said. And, 
indeed, he did, for he soon entered the harbor and 
before his quick little ships sailed out, they had a 
store of provisions. 

A year had passed since Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
and now the Invincible Armada set sail from Lisbon, 
Portugal, to conquer England. It drifted about the coast 
and it was three weeks reaching the English Channel. 
In July the two fleets faced each other off the coast of 
CaFais in France and soon the battle was begun. 

The English had converted six of their vessels into 
fire-ships, and when these appeared in the darkness of 
the night sending forth their flames, the Spaniards 
were terrified. ^'Fire-ships! Fire-ships!" they cried. 
Then followed explosions. A panic seized the 
frightened crews and in their eagerness to escape they 
cut the cables, and the anchors went to the bottom 
of the sea. Those of the enemies' ships not disabled 
sailed to the north, for they did not dare to pass the 
English fleet that lay between them and Spain. 



220 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 




Terrible storms arose, and some of the Spanish 
ships were wrecked off the coast of Scotland, and only 
sixty-five battered vessels returned to Spain. Philip's 
fleet had failed, and England became mistress of the 
seas. 

THE STORY OF GILBERT AND RALEIGH 

Since the days of John Cabot, English fishermen 
had been going to the banks of 
Newfoundland for fish. But it 
was not till Queen Elizabeth's 
reign that England again turned 
her attention to America. 

Explorers were still interested 
in a northwest passage to Asia. 
Martin Frob'-ish-er, an English 
seaman, had sailed to the coast 
of Labrador, and he had returned 
to England with the news that gold mines existed 
among the icebergs. 

Later sailed one of the noblest of English seamen — 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert. But his small fleet was 
attacked by Spaniards, and then a terrible storm arose 
and Gilbert was compelled to return home. But the 
Queen did not lose faith in him; she gave him a little 
golden anchor, and fitted out other vessels for him. 
He soon set sail again, and this time, landing on the 
coast of Newfoundland, started to build a colony. 
But the long cold winters and the visits of warlike 
Indians did not make the place very attractive to the 
settlers. After exploring the coast Gilbert decided 
to return to England. 



Raleigh's Servant finds him 
smoking 



THE STORY- OF GILBERT AND RALEIGH 221 

Again he encountered terrible storms, and the sailors 
had reasons to be frightened. But Gilbert said to 
them, ^'We are as near to heaven by sea as by land." 
And it was not long before his ship was lost in the 
stormy sea. 

In his poem on Gilbert Longfellow tells us 

Alas, the land-wind failed, 

And ice-cold grew the night; 
And nevermore, on sea or shore, 

Should Sir Humphrey see the light. 

He sat upon the deck. 

The Book was in his hand: 
"Do not fear! Heaven is as near," 
He said, ''by water as by land." 

Walter Raleigh was Sir Humphrey Gilbert's half- 
brother. He, too, was eager to plant an English 
colony in America. Raleigh was one of the Queen's 
favorite courtiers, and she gladly gave him a charter 
to build a colony. 

Not only did Elizabeth dress extravagantly, but her 
courtiers and the rich men of the time were clothed 
in brilliantly colored satins and velvets. And no one 
was more handsomely dressed than Sir Walter Raleigh. 
We remember that before he came to the court he 
placed his crimson velvet cloak over a muddy place 
in the road for the queen to step on. , 

Raleigh believed that his brother had gone too far 
north. He would plant his colony farther south; but 
first he would send out men to explore the land. 



222 



THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 



Accordingly two ships set sail, and they reached Roa- 
noke Island off the coast of North Carolina. 

It was in the summer when they landed, and they 
found sweet-scented flowers and an abundance of wild 
grapes. They explored the forests and there they 
noticed the pine, the cedar, and the cypress tree. 
They saw a great many birds and rabbits and deer, and 
they met friendly Indians. It is no wonder that the 
explorers returned to England with glowing accounts of 
the land that they had seen. ''We will call this country 
Virginia in honor of our Virgin Queen," they said. 




Jamestown in 1622 



Other ships soon embarked from England. This 
time the men were not merely to explore but to plant 
a colony. They had no sooner landed than they began 
searching for gold, and colony planting seemed to be 
forgotten, r The Indians told them to follow the 
Roanoke River to its source, and there they would 
find rich treasures. 

They explored the river but found no gold mines, 



THE STORY OF GILBERT AND RALEIGH 223 

and they returned to England without planting a 
colony. However, they took back with them plants 
unknown in Europe — the Indian corn, tobacco, and 
the potato. Sir Walter Raleigh and other Englishmen 
soon learned to smoke the tobacco. One morning, as 
Sir Walter was enjoying his pipe, a servant entered 
the room and, seeing his master enveloped in smoke, 
threw a tankard of ale over him. 

Raleigh made anothet attempt to plant a colony. 
''This time," he said, ''I will send families. The men 
will be more contented if they have home ties." 

And it was not long before one hundred and fifty 
men, women, and children set sail for Roanoke Island. 
Their leader was John White, and he was to be their 
governor in the new country. Soon after landing a 
baby girl was born to Mrs. Dare, the daughter of 
Governor White. It was the first child born of English 
parents in America and it was named Virginia. 

These settlers had landed in July, and now it was 
late in the fall. Food was becoming scarce and 
Governor White returned to England for supplies. He 
found great excitement in the home country. It was 
the year of the Spanish Armada, and every English 
vessel was forced into service. Three years passed 
before Governor White could set sail with the pro- 
visions for the little colony that he had left on Roa- 
noke Island. 

Now that the war on the waters between England 
and Spain was ended, Raleigh was free to fit- out ^ 
vessel of supplies for his colony in America. It was 
agreed that if the people should leave the island, they 



224 THE STORY OF THE OLD WORLD 

would carve on the bark of a tree the name of the place 
to which they would go. If misfortune should over- 
take them, they would inscribe a cross on the tree. 

Again Governor White set sail and reached the 
island. But there was no trace of the settlers except 
the word ''Croatan" carved on the trunk of a tree. 
More than three hundred years have passed since 
then, and to this day we do not know what became 
of the Lost Colony and little Virginia Dare. 

Raleigh's efforts, however, to plant a colony in 
America were not without fruits. He educated Eng- 
land into the idea of colonizing, and before many 
years had passed a permanent English colony was 
founded in America. And this was followed by other 
settlements. The time soon came when Spain lost 
part of her possessions in the new world, and it was 
left to the English colonies on the Atlantic coast to 
found a new nation. Thus the story of our country 
was begun. 



SUGGESTIVE TOPICS FOR COMPOSITION 
AND DISCUSSION 

The questions and suggestions that follow will he found of 
great value in familiarizing students with historic characters 
a7id events and in stimulating the imagination. The teacher 
should introduce other topics of a similar nature, 

CHAPTER I 

A day at Ellis Island. 

Debate on the question, Resolved, That immigration 
should be restricted. 

Are there any boys and girls in your school whose parents 
have come from foreign countries? If there are, what are 
the countries? 

A comparison: the Concord with the Germans and an 
ocean greyhound with immigrants. 

Imagine and describe a conversation between Pastorius 
and Penn. 

The inventors of the alphabet. 

John Gutenberg and the invention of printing. 

The writing of manuscripts before printing was invented. 

The picture writing of the Indians. 

The sewing machine and its inventor. 

The telephone and its inventor. 

Make a list of recent inventions. 

What do you know of their history? 

CHAPTER II 

How do geographic conditions affect a country? 
How did the situation of Greece influence its civilization? 

225 



226 APPENDIX 

Read the myth of Apollo, the myth of Dionysus, and the 
myth of Demeter. 

Read Hawthorne's "Wonder Book" and "Tanglewood 
Tales." 

Read the story of the Odyssey. (The prose translation 
by George H. Palmer is excellent.) 

The Marathon runner to-day. Read "Pheidippedes," a 
poem by Robert Browning. 

Why I admire Leonidas. 

What I admire in the character of Themistocles. 

Has the United States a strong navy? 

Why did the ancient people build walls around their 
cities? 

Are there any pictures or statues in your school by Greek 
artists? If there are, who are the artists? Do you know 
the stories of the pictures or statues? 

Are there any buildings in your city or town that look 
like Greek architecture? What are the characteristics of 
Greek columns? 

A comparison: the Greek theater and the American. 

What did the theaters do in ancient times that newspapers 
do to-day? 

Is the object of the theater to-day to educate? 

Are schools and colleges giving outdoor plays to-day? 

Debate on the question, Resolved, That plays should be 
given in the schools. 

What is done in dramatization in the different grades of 
your school? 

Do modern educators beheve that plays should be given 
in the schools? 

A comparison: the education of a Greek boy and that of 
an American boy. 

A comparison: the ancient Olympic Games and those of 
recent years. 



APPENDIX 227 

Do you think the modern Olympic Games will promote a 
better feeling among nations? 

CHAPTER III 

Learn some of the fables of ^Esop. 

Modern Athens; its government. 

With the help of the dictionary, make a list of words that 
have come down to us from the Greeks and note their 
meaning. 

What wou'd an American dislike in Solon's laws? What 
was good in them? 

A comparison : a modern court of justice and the Areopagus. 

What is meant by the expression ''rich as Croesus"? Do 
you know any other persons whose names stand for 
types? 

What is the meaning of the word ''tyrant" to-day? 

What do you think of the changes in Solon's constitution 
by Clisthenes? 

The oracle at Delphi. 

What I admire in the character of Socrates. 

What I admire in the boyhood of Alexander the Great. 

What modern city do you think is the world's intellec- 
tual and commercial center to-day? 

In what was Claudius Ptolemseus ahead of his time? 

What were the Seven Wonders of the World? 

What America owes the Greeks. 

CHAPTER IV 

Read Macaulay's ''Horatius at the Bridge. '* 
What I admire in the character of Horatius. 
Why was George Washington called the "Cincinnatus of 
the West"? 

Did Washington ever pursue a ''Fabian" policy? 



228 APPENDIX 

With the help of the dictionary make a hst of words that 
have come from the Romans and note their meaning. 
The Roman Forum. 

Hannibal, the Carthaginian commander. 
What I admire in the characters of the Gracchi. 

CHAPTER V 

Who besides Cicero has been called the •*' Father of his 
Country"? 

The character of Julius Caesar as a general. 

What I admire in the character of Vercingetorix. 

What did Caesar accomplish for the welfare of his country? 

Read what Cassius and Brutus say of Caesar in Shake- 
speare's play ''Julius Caesar." Is the character of Caesar as 
portrayed by Shakespeare in accord with that of history? 

Learn part of Mark Antony's speech (Shakespeare's 
''Julius Caesar") beginning "Friends, Romans, countrymen." 

How does Mark Antony describe Brutus at the close of 
Shakespeare's play? 

Read Plutarch's "Lives of Great Men." 

Who was the first ruler to be called emperor? What 
rulers of modern times are called emperors? Why are 
they given the title? 

The Roman Colosseum. 

A comparison: the Greeks and the Romans. 

What America owes the Romans. 

Read the story of Christ from the Bible. 

CHAPTER VI 

Why do the French remember Clovis? 

Read the story of King Arthur from Tennyson's "Idylls 
of the King," or from Malory's "Morte d'Arthur," or from 
Sidney Lanier's "Boys' King Arthur." 



APPENDIX 229 

What is the meaning of the term ''Vikings"? 

Read the Anglo-Saxon story of Beowulf. (See ''Siegfried 
and Beowulf, " by Madame Ragozin.) 

Read the story of Siegfried, the hero of the North, from 
William Morris' "Sigurd the Volsung." 

Read a description of the Normans and Saxons from 
"Ivanhoe," by Sir Walter Scott. 

Why I admire Alfred the Great. 

The Great Charter. 

The origin of the English Parliament. 

A comparison: English Parliament and United States 
Congress. 

The origin of the title " Prince of Wales." When the eldest 
son of the English ruler is invested as Prince of Wales, where 
does the ceremony take place? Describe the ceremony. 

The Stone of Scone. 

What I can learn from Robert Bruce. Read "Ban- 
nockburn," a poem by Burns. 

The meaning of the expression "Middle Ages." 

Have we any organizations in modern life that take the 
place of the old gilds? 

What was there good in knighthood? 

On whom is the title of knighthood conferred in Great 
Britain to-day? Describe the ceremony? 

Are there any organizations in the United States whose 
members are called knights? 

Read the description of a tournament in "Ivanhoe, " by 
Sir Walter Scott. 

Read "The Tournament," a poem by Sidney Lanier. 

What are the duties of the Archbishop of Canterbury in 
the coronation of an English monarch? 

A comparison: a Greek temple and a cathedral of the 
Middle Ages. 

What we owe the monasteries of the Middle Ages. 



230 APPENDIX 



CHAPTER VII 

The Koran. 

The Mohammedans to-day. 

What we owe to the crusades. 

Modern Jerusalem. 

Read Scott's ''Ivanhoe" to study the times of King 
Richard. 

Read ''Robin Hood," by Howard Pyle (describing the 
outlaws in King Richard's time). 

The Children's Crusade. 

The early Italian painters; the stories of their lives and 
pictures. 

A comparison : the oldest university in England and the 
oldest university in our country. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Read the "Norse Stories Retold," by Hamilton Mabie. 

Read the ''Story of Vinland," a poem by Sidney Lanier. 

Read the "Norsemen," a poem by John Greenleaf 
Whittier. 

Read the "Saga of King Olaf," from Longfellow's "Tales 
of a Wayside Inn." 

Read Longfellow's "Skeleton in Armor." 

Read "The Norseman's Ride," a poem by Bayard Taylor. 

Read "Norseland Tales," by H. H. Boyesen. 

Read "Jan of Iceland," by Bayard Taylor, from his "Boys 
of Other Countries." 

What was China called in Marco Polo's day? 

Read Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan." 

Does America owe anything to Marco Polo? 

The ideas in regard to Asia in the fifteenth century. 

What did Bartholomew Diaz accomplish? 



APPENDIX 231 

How did the trade with the East lead to the discovery of 
America? 

How did the capture of Constantinople by the Turks bring 
about the discovery of America? 

Did Columbus owe anything to the crusades? 

Read the story of the '^Alhambra/' by Washington 
Irving. 

Read ''Columbus at the Convent," a poem by John T. 
Trowbridge. 

Read ''The Thanksgiving for America," a poem by Heze- 
kiah Butterworth. 

Read "Columbus," a poem by Edward Everett Hale. 

Read "Columbus and the Mayflower," a poem by Lord 
Houghton. 

What I admire most in the character of Columbus. 

Read Joaquin Miller's poem "Columbus." 

Do you think America ought to have been named after 
Columbus? 

Debate on the question, Resolved, That Columbus Day 
should be observed by our country. 

How did Portugal vie with Spain? 

Who found the first ocean route to India? 

What great voyage helped to prove that the earth is round? 

How did the search for riches lead to the discovery of a 
great ocean? 

What I admire most in the character of Magellan. 

Was France interested in a route to China? 

Modern Mexico. 

How did the search for gold lead to the discovery of a 
great river? 

CHAPTER IX 

What countries in Europe to-day have state churches? 
What is the meaning of Protestant? 



232 APPENDIX 

What household comforts and conveniences have come 
into use since the times of Queen Elizabeth? 

Read ''Kenilworth/' by Sir Walter Scott. 

Why I admire Lord de Bayard. 

Read ''Brave Little Holland," by Griffis. 

Read ''Hans Brinker," by Mary Mapes Dodge. 

The city of Delft is noted for what earthenware? 

Queen Wilhelmina. 

What I admire in William of Orange. 

Why I admire Sir Phihp Sidney. 

Read Lamb's "Tales from Shakespeare." 

Why did Spain lose her stronghold in America? 

Which country is more powerful to-day — Spain or Eng- 
land? Reasons for your answer. 

Read Longfellow's poem, "Sir Humphrey Gilbert." 

Read "Raleigh's Cell in the Tower," a poem by Dante 
Gabriel Rossetti. 

How did England come to be the founder of our country? 



INDEX 



A Becket, Thomas, 146 

Achilles, 23-24 

Acropolis, 37, 42 

^gean Sea, 17 

^neas, 67 

Mneid, 67 

iEquians, 74 

iEschylus, 41 

JEsop, 52, 53 

Agamemnon, 23 

Alba Longa, 74 

Alcibiades, 56 

Alemanni, 117 

Alesia, 96 

Alexander the Great, 58-66 

Alexandria, 65 

Alexius, 152 

Alfred, King, 123-130 

Alhambra, 173 

Alva, Duke of, 213 

Americans, 1-5, 130 

Americus Vespucius, 177 

Angles, 115 

Anio, the, 73 

Aphrodite, 20, 21, 22, 40 

Apollo, 19, 25 

Arabs, 148 

Archons, 50-51 

Areopagus, 52, 54, 57' 

Ares, 20 

Ariovistus, 92-93 

Aristophanes, 56 

Aristotle, 58, 61 



Armada, Invincible, 217 

Artemis, 19 

Arthur, King, 118-121 

Ascalon, 157 

Ashdown, 127 

Assassins, 157 

Assyria, 14 

Athene, 19, 21, 22, 25, 38 

Athenian education, 42 

Athens, 28, 31, 34-46, 49-58 

Augustine, 121 

Augustus, Caesar, 103-104 

Aurora, 19, 20 

Aztecs, 192 

Babylon, 64 
BadonHill, 119 
Bannockburn, battle, 139 
Balboa, 182-184 
Barbarossa, 154 
'^ Beggars," 213 
Bible, the, 14 
Blondel, 159 
Britain, 119 
Britons, 12, 119 
Bruce, Robert, 139 
Brutus, 102-103 

Cabot, John, 178-180 
Cabot, Sebastian, 178 
Caelian Hill, 69 
Caesar, Caius Julius, 87-103 
Caius Gracchus, 84-86 



233 



234 



INDEX 



Cambridge, University of, 

162 
Campus Martius, 106-107 
Cannae, 80 

Canterbury Cathedral, 146 
''Canterbury Tales," 147 
Cape of Good Hope, 171 
Capitol, the, 105 
Capitoline, the, 104 
Carolina, Fort, 208 
Carthage, 76-82, 112 
Cartier, Jacques, 187-191 
Cassius, 102 
Catiline, 90-91 
Cato, 81, 89 
Ceres, 20 

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 147 
Christ, 109, 148 
Christianity, 107-112 
Cicero, M. Tullius, 87, 89, 95 
Cicero, Quintus, 95 
Cid, the, 173-174 
Cimabue, 163 
Cincinnatus, 74-76 
Claudius Ptolemaeus, 66 
Cleopatra, 100 
Clisthenes 53 
Clotilda, 116-118 
''Clouds, The," 56 
Clovis, 116-118 
Codrus, 49 

CoHgny, Admiral, 208 
Colosseum, 107 
Columbus, Bartholomew, 172 
Columbus, Christopher, 66, 

172-178 
Compass, mariner's, 13 
"Concord," the, 7-8 
Constantine, Emperor, 111 
Constantinople, 111 



Cornelia, mother of Gracchi, 

84,86 
Cortez, Hernando, 191-195 
Crassus, 89, 98 
Crito, 57 
Croesus, 28, 52 
Crusades, 148-164 
Cynics, the, 62 

Da Gama, Vasco, 180-182 

Danes, the, 1, 122-128 

Dante, 162 

Darius, 28-31 

De Bayard, Lord, 206 

Delaware River, 6, 7, 8 

Delft, 215 

Delphi, 31, 50, 55 

Demeter, 20 

Demosthenes, 58-59 

De Soto, Ferdinand, 197-199 

Diana, 19 

Diaz, Bartholomew, 171-172 

Diaz, Porfirio, 195 

Diogenes, 62 

Dionysus, 41 

Discus Thrower, the, 40, 43 

Dorians, 49 

Draco, 51 

Drake, Sir Francis, 202-206 

Duke of Alva, 213 

Duke Leopold, 157 

Dutch, the, 6,211,216 

Edward I, of England, 137 

Egbert, King, 122 

Egypt, 64, 100, 112 

Egyptians, 15 

El Dorado, 197, 199 

Electricity, 13 

Elizabeth, Queen, 202, 217 



INDEX 



235 



Ellis Island, 3 
England, 12, 119 
Eos, 19 

Eric the Red, 166 
Ericson, Leif, 6, 166-167 
Esquiline Hill, 105 
Ethelred, 124 
Ethelwulf, 123 
Etruria, 70, 112 
Etruscans, 70, 106 
Eucles, 30 
Euripides, 41 
Europeans, 3 

Fabius, 79-80 
Ferdinand, King, 176 
Fort Carolina, 208 
Forum, the, 73, 86, 105 
France, 12 
Francis I, King, 206 
Franks, the, 12, 115-118 
Frederick I, Emperor, 154 
Frobisher, Martin, 220 

Gaul, 89 

Gauls, the, 12, 91-97 

Genoa, 162 

Germans, the, 5-10, 92-93 

Germantown, Pa., 9-10 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 220 

Gild-halls, 143 

Gilds of London, 143 

Giotto, 163 

Godfrey of Bouillon, 152 

''Golden Hind," 204 

Good Hope, Cape of, 171 

Gordian knot, the, 63 

Goths, 115 

Gracchi, the, 84-86 

Gracchus, Caius, 84-86 



Gracchus, Tiberius, 84 
Granada, 173 
Great Charter, 134 
Greece, 17, 18, 28 
Greeks, the, 16, 17-66, 107, 

108 
Gregory, Pope, 121 
Gutenberg, John, 14, 16 
Guthrum, 128 

Hades, 20 

Hannibal, 78-81 

Harold, King, 131-132 

Hastings, battle of, 131-132 

Hawkins, John, 201-202 

Hector, 23-24 

Helen of Troy, 21, 22 

Hellespont, 32 

Helvetians, the, 92 

Hengist, 119 

Henry III, King, 135-137 

Hephaestus, 20, 24 

Heptarchy, 122 

Hera, 19, 21, 41, 52 

Hercules, 47-48 

Hermes, 19, 40, 41 

Herodotus, 48 

Hestia, 20 

Hieroglyphics, 15 

Holland, 211 

Homer, 14, 21, 27, 43, 53, 

61 
Horace, 113 
Horatius, 69-72 
Horsa, 119 

House of Commons, 136 
House of Lords, 137 
Howard, Admiral, 219 
Huguenots, 209 
Hyphasis, the, 64 



236 



INDEX 



Iliad, the, 20, 27, 43, 61 
Immortals, the, 33 
Inca, 197 
Indians, 11, 15 
Isabella, Queen, 176 
Italians, 12 

Jamestown, Va., 5, 6 
Jerusalem, 149 
John, King, 132-134 
Juan Perez, 175 
Juno, 19 
Jupiter, 19, 67 
Jutes, 115 

Koran, the, 148 
Knighthood, 144-145 
Kubla Khan, 168-170 

Ladrones, 186 
Langton, Stephen, 133 
Lake Geneva, 92 
Laocoon, 25 
Lars, Porsenna, 70 
Latins, the, 67 
Lavinia, 67 
Leisler, Jacob, 6 
Leonidas, 31-34 
Leopold, Duke, 157 
Leyden, 214 
Louvre, 40 
Lyceum, 42, 53 
Lydia, 27 

Macaulay, Lord, 71 
Macedonia, 58 
Magellan, Ferdinand, 184- 
187 



Magna Carta, 134 
Marathon, battle of, 27-31 
Marathon race, 48 
Marathon runner, the, 30 
Marco Polo, 168 
Mardonius, 35 
Marius, 88 
Mars, 20 

Mayflower, the, 5 
Mecca, 149 
Medina, 149 
Melos, 40 
Menelaus, 21, 22 
Menendez, 210 
Mercury, 19 
Mexico, 191 

Middle Ages, the, 139-147 
Milan, 206 
Miltiades, 29-30 
Minerva, 19 
Minuit, Peter, 6 
Mississippi, 199 
Mohammed, 148-149 
Mohammedans, 148 
Montezuma, 192 
Montfort, Simon de, 136 
Montreal, 190 
Moors, the, 173 
Muller, Waldsee, 6 
Museum, 41 
Myron, 40 

Naples, 206 
Natal, 182 
Neptune, 20 
Nero, 110 

Netherlands, The, 211 
Nicolo Polo, 168 
Normans, the, 130-132 
Northmen, the, 122, 165-168 



INDEX 



237 



Octavius Cfiesar, 103-104 
Odoacer, 116 
Odysseus, 25 
Odyssey, 20, 27, 43 
Olaf, King, 166 
Olympic games, 46^8 
Olympus, 19 
Ovid, 113 
Oxford, University of, 162 

Pacific Ocean, 184 

Palatine Hill, 69, 105 

Panama, 183, 195 

Paris," 22 

Paris, France, 118 

Parliament, English, 135, 

137, 139 
Parthenon, 39-41 
Parthians, 98 
Pastorius, Daniel, 8-10 
Patroclus, 23 
Paul, 109 
Paula, 111 
Pedagogue, 42 
Penn, William, 5-9 
Pennsylvania, 6-9 
Perez, Juan, 175 
Pericles, 38-42 
Persia, 28, 58, 64 
Persians, the, 36 
Peru, 196-197 
Peter the Hermit, 150 
Petrarch, 163 
Pharos, 66 
Pharsalus, 100 
Phidias, 39-40 
Philadelphia, 9 
Philip II of France, 154 
Philip of Macedon, 58 
Philip II of Spain, 211 



''Philippics, The," 58 
Phoenicians, the, 16 
Pindar, 48 
Pisistratus, 43, 53 
Pizarro, 195-197 
Plataea, 36 
Plato, 58 
Pluto, 20 
Polo, Marco, 168 
Polo, Nicolo, 168 
Pompey, 88, 98-100 
Pontius Pilate, 109 
Pontus, 101 
Pope Gregory, 121 
Port Royal, S. C, 6 
Portugal, 172, 200 
Porus, 64 
Poseidon, 20 
Praxiteles, 40 
Priam, 22 
Printing, 13-16, 26 
Ptolemy, 65-66, 100 
Punic Wars, 76-82 

Quakers, the, 8, 10 
Quebec, 190 
Quirinal Hill, 69 

Raleigh, Walter, 221 

Regulus, 77 

Remus, 68-69 

Richard I, King, 132, 154- 

159 
Rio de la Plata, 185 
Roanoke Island, 222 
Romans, 12, 16 
Rome, 11, 67-86 • 
Romulus, 68-69, 105 
Rubicon, 98-100 
Runnymede, 134 



238 



INDEX 



Sabines, the, 69, 105 

Sacred Mount, 72-73 

St. Augustine, 210 

Saladin, 154 St. Paul, 109 

Salamis, 34-35 

Sardinia, 76 

Saxons, the, 115 

Scandinavians, the, 1 

Scipio, 81-84 

Scots, the, 138-139 

Senlac Hill, 131 

Sewing machine, the, 13 

Shakespeare, William, 217 

Sicily, 76 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 216 

Simon de Montfort, 136 

Slavery, 10 

Socrates, 54-58 

Solon, 43, 51-53 

Sophists, the, 54 

Sophocles, 41 

Spain, 100, 200 

Sparta, 21, 22, 29, 32, 37, 

44^6 
Spenser, Edmund, 217 
Stone of Scone, the, 138 
Styx, 24 
Sulla, 88 
Swedes, the, 1, 6 

Tacitus, 115 
Tarquin, 69-70 
Themistocles, 31-34, 37 
Thermopylae, 32-34 
Theseum, 41 
Theseus, 49 
Tiber, the, 67 
Tiberius Gracchus, 84-86 
Tower of London, 143 
Trasimene, Lake, 78 



Trebia, 78 

Tribunes, 73 

Troy, Siege of, 20-27, 67 

Turks, 39, 150 

Tyrker, 6 

Ulysses, 25 

Urban, Pope, 149-151 

Valencia, 173 

Varro, 80 

Vasco da Gama, 180-182 

Vatican, 40 

''Veni, vidi, vici," 101 

Venice, 161-162, 180 

Venus, 20, 40, 67 

Vercingetorix, 95-97 

Vesta, 20, 106 

Vestal Virgins, 106 

Vikings, the, 121-123 

Villeins, 141 

Vinland, 167 

Virgil, 67 

Virginia, 5 

Virginia Dare, 223 

Vulcan, 20 

Vulgate, 111 

Wilhelmina, Queen, 216 
William the Conqueror, 131- 

132 
Welsh, the, 138 



Xantippe, 55 
Xerxes, 31-35 

Yucatan, 191 

Zana, 81 
Zeus, 19, 21, 47 
Zutphen, 216 



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